Understanding Human Psychology University Approved Certifica

1.1 INTRODUCTION

You are now participating in the interesting world of psychology. Educational Psychology will be the primary focus of our classroom time together. However, comprehension of the subject of psychology known as educational psychology requires a background in general psychology. You are surely aware that general psychology is taught in a class of its own. To put it more simply, the goal of this lecture is to provide you an introduction to the field of psychology so that you will be better equipped to go on to Educational Psychology.

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

You should be able to: I Define psychology; (ii) Describe the fundamental aims of psychology; (iii) Narrate a brief history of psychology; and (iv) Describe the key subfields of psychology by the time we reach the end of this lecture.

1.2 DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY

In a nutshell, the subject matter of psychology consists of the study of behavior and the processes that occur in the mind. Nevertheless, there are a great many other fields of study that concentrate their attention on human behavior as well. These fields of study include the likes of sociology, economics, law, literature, anthropology, astrology, witchcraft, and fortune telling as well as political science and religious studies (to name just a few). The use of scientific techniques in the research and analysis of psychological phenomena distinguishes psychology from the aforementioned fields of study. Psychology is concerned with the investigation of mental and behavioral processes. As a result, psychology is a term that refers to the scientific study of both behavior and the processes that occur in the mind.

The empirical data that is acquired in a way that is objective and can be corroborated serves as the basis for the scientific process. In addition to that, it makes use of several measurements throughout. The field of psychology takes a scientific approach to the study of themes related to natural behavior and the functioning of mental processes with the end objective of better understanding these areas. Explanations of behavior that are grounded on scientific technique, as opposed to those that are based on sheer guessing, are simpler to trust. The study of psychology aims to provide explanations for a variety of questions pertaining to education, including the following: how do very young infants learn? Why are there so wide disparities in the levels of accomplishment among the students? What are the strategies that have shown to be the most successful in keeping order in the classroom? And what exactly can we do to prevent violent conduct in the schools where our children are enrolled? Psychologists face head-on questions that come up in domains other than psychology, such as medicine, trade, health, industries, and professions. These kinds of questions include ones like:

TAKE NOTE

In some manner, each and every facet of human behavior may be linked back to the field of study known as psychology.

It seems from the questions that have just been posed that behavior is a word that covers a wide range of subject matter. Some activities are shown externally and may be seen in real time, such as walking, singing, writing, or climbing a tree. Other actions, such as eating, are not as easily observed. On the other hand, some behaviors are more difficult to see than others. On the other hand, some of the behaviors, such as thinking, being cheerful, or detesting an object, are internal and can only be extrapolated from them. These behaviors include thinking, being joyous, and detesting an item. As you will see when the concept of "study" is defined in a moment, the act of describing, understanding, and making predictions about behavior is included in the process of "studying," which is a noun. The term "study" encompasses a wide range of activities.

1.3 MAIN AREAS OF PSYCHOLOGY

The human behavior may be broken down into several subcategories, each of which is influenced by a different set of factors. Because of this, in order to be able to comprehend the material that is covered in psychology, we have broken it down into its broadest terms, which are the following: physical, cognitive, emotional, and environmental elements.

The Physical aspect is the body of the person i.e. muscles, bones, glands and sensory systems. This suggests that the biological processes that occur inside our bodies have an effect on our behavior. For instance, being hungry compels us to search for something to eat (behavior); only females are able to have children, whilst men are unable to do so; and writing requires excellent eye-hand coordination as well as strong arm muscles.

Memory, thought, the ability to solve problems, and language are some of the mental functions that are the primary focus of the cognitive subfield of psychology (You know that brain is part of the physical body, thus there is a connection between body and cognitive processes). It is the responsibility of the cognitive component to ensure that we have an accurate understanding of both ourselves and our surroundings. This understanding, in turn, leads to the development of capabilities and behaviors that can be used to influence our surroundings in order to further our development.

Emotions are the emotions that we experience as a response to an item or event. These feelings may be positive or negative. These sensations might either be pleasant or unpleasant. Pleasant sensations include being joyful, falling in love, laughing; while negative feelings include being furious, sad, afraid and unhappy. Emotions are what differentiate people from machines and other inherently existing things; they color our lives (for example, making us joyful at a wedding yet sad when we lose a loved one) and influence how we behave (in form of reacting and acting on our emotions). There is a one-to-one correspondence between one's feelings and one's brain, as well as between one's feelings and their bodily manifestations.

The environment (our physical surroundings) has an influence on our actions since it not only supplies us with the things we need to live (air, food, and water), but it also either restricts or expands the behaviors and capabilities we are capable of (think of learning environment). Because they take care of the young ones (who are unable to look for food or fend off negative elements in the environment, babies cannot survive without the support of the caregivers), on the language we acquire and in the shaping of our behaviors through socialization processes, the people around us have a direct influence on us.

These key areas of researching psychology are interconnected and do not function in isolation of the other areas. For instance, the environment has an effect on us (both emotionally and cognitively, as well as physically, socially, and behaviorally), and we also have some impact on the environment, whether it be physical or social. When we see food that we appreciate, our mouths begin to water, we make the decision to approach the seller, purchase the meal, and then we have pleasure in eating it. An action like this is straightforward but yet complicated since it has repercussions for the life of the seller, the processing of food, the production of food, and the influence on the environment. These subfields also suggest that the field of psychology is connected to a variety of other academic fields, including biology, sociology, economics, education, environmental science, anthropology, medicine, and geography. Nevertheless, you need to have a clear understanding of the differences between psychology and the other areas.

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGY

In the context of the concept of psychology, this subtopic serves as an expansion on the meaning of the word "study." Studying psychology allows one to achieve all four of the following goals: to explain behavior, to comprehend behavior, to anticipate behavior, and to exert control over behavior.

• Describe: the primary goal of psychology is to provide an explanation of how and why behavior takes place.

• Have an understanding: the second goal is to find out what leads people to behave in certain ways.

• Anticipate: after we have described and comprehended the factors that contribute to a person's behavior, we are in a position to anticipate how that person will behave in a given set of circumstances.

• Command and control: the fourth goal of psychology is to exert an impact on the behavior of people.

As a teacher, you might be interested in learning what Bahati is doing and how he or she is doing it (describe); then, you might be interested in learning why he or she is behaving in such a manner (cause); finally, you might be interested in learning whether or not Bahati will continue to behave in the same manner in the future (predict); and finally, you might be interested in learning what can be done to maintain or eliminate the behavior (control).

You may explain a behavior of a person you know by following the sequence of psychological aims that was just presented.

1.5 HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY

Since the beginning of recorded history, human beings have been preoccupied with problems that are related to human behavior. People have been trying to solve the mind-body dilemma for a very long time, but so far they have not developed a solution that is entirely satisfying in every respect. Both theology and philosophy have traditionally focused their attention on issues pertaining to behavior (refer to the books of religion and writings of philosophers such as Plato and Socrates).

In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt founded a laboratory (read: scientific method) in Leipzig to explore the organization of the mind. This marked the beginning of the area of psychology as an autonomous academic discipline (a subject matter of psychology). His goal was to discover the fundamental components that underlie thinking, awareness, and the other mental activities. Prior until that point, the majority of these questions pertaining to behavior had been predicated on assumption. Because of the application of scientific methodology to the task of describing a psychological phenomena, it is generally agreed that the field of psychology was launched in that year.

Now, let's have a look at the many theoretical viewpoints that have been used to explain the development of psychology. These theoretical viewpoints provide an indication of the manner in which psychologists have interpreted the content of psychology throughout the course of its history. The manner in which individuals describe their experiences with reference to the circumstances of the time period in question has had an impact on the viewpoints. Therefore, each viewpoint has been impacted by the views that came before it, and those perspectives, in turn, have influenced the perspectives that will come after them. Each viewpoint has made important contributions to the field of psychology, which have ultimately resulted in a deeper comprehension of human development. However, it is important to keep in mind that there is no one school of thought within psychology that can adequately explain all elements of human behavior. During this presentation, we will simply touch on a few of these different points of view briefly. Later on, in the appropriate courses, a more in-depth discussion of the influence that various viewpoints have had on education is going to take place.

1.5.1 Structuralism

Structuralism is the name of the earliest school of thought in the field of psychology. Wilhelm Wundt, who lived from 1932 till 1920, was interested in discovering the fundamental components that underlie conscious experiences, emotions, and pictures. The developments in physical science that have place throughout time had an impact on him (the identification of atoms in physics and cells in biology). Introspection, also known as self-observation, was the primary approach that he used in order to acquire these components. When they were shown an item, he instructed his helpers to vocally describe what they were experiencing via their senses. For instance, an assistant will hold a banana and report on what he felt while doing so, specifically in terms of his sensations. The most significant drawback of introspection was its lack of objectivity, which meant that its findings could not be checked by a third party. People who had been schooled in introspection often reported having opposing feelings about the same thing, which led to confusion amongst them.

1.5.2 The Concept of Functionalism

William James, a philosopher from the United States, established this school of thought under the influence of Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection, sometimes known as "survival of the fittest." Instead of focusing on the structure of consciousness, as Wundt had proposed, he argued that psychology need to explore the functions or goals of consciousness. The way in which people's behaviors operate to accommodate the needs of the actual environment around them was of particular interest. John Dewey founded the first school of psychology and the most effective methods of catering to the educational requirements of children on the basis of this approach.

1.5.3 Psychodynamic

Within this framework, the most influential figure was a physician by the name of Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). He was born in Vienna, which is located in Austria, but he eventually migrated to the United States. His idea is based on the observations he made while working with patients who suffered from various psychiatric conditions. He depended on his own interpretations that he created on the significance of his clients' waking dreams, waking worries, and waking thoughts. It was his hypothesis that mental processes interact with behavior, which led to the development of the field of study known as psychodynamics. He believed that the majority of our behaviors are governed by our brains as a consequence of the manner in which our unconscious thoughts, feelings, and wishes manifest themselves. Consequently, the component of us that is unconscious has a greater impact on us than the component that is aware does. Sometimes the reasons behind our sentiments, ideas, and desires are in direct opposition to one another, causing a conflict inside ourselves as a result. He was of the opinion that these disagreements have no substance in the actual world but have a significant influence on the way we conduct our lives. The most important thing that this viewpoint brings to the table is the recognition that the experiences we have as children have a significant impact on the quality of our lives as adults and that psychology plays an important part in the therapeutic process for those who suffer from psychological issues.

Search psychology textbooks for the following psychoanalytic concepts: id, super ego, and ego.

1.5.4 Behaviorism (Behaviorism)

This school of thinking has its roots in the United States of America and is a development of functionalism. The belief held by behaviorists is that mental processes can neither be seen nor verified in an objective manner by an outside party. They did not consider introspection or any of the other techniques used in psychoanalysis to be scientific, thus they rejected such approaches. Instead, they advocated that the field of psychology should only concentrate on observable behavior and the contextual factors that might have an effect on how people act. Research practices in the field of psychology need to be comparable to those found in other scientific disciplines. The most well-known behaviorist, B.F. Skinner (1904–1990), made the observation that the behavior of an organism may be influenced by manipulating the environment in which the creature lives. The tenet of behaviorism is that an action is determined by the consequences of that action. When a certain action is followed by a positive reinforcement, that action will be repeated under the same circumstances. On the other hand, the probability of it happening again under the same circumstances is reduced if there is a consequence for it after it. Between the years 1950 and 1970, the dominant school of thought in psychology was behaviorism, which was also incorporated into many learning and teaching methodologies. The most significant shortcoming of behaviorism was that it failed to take into account mental processes, despite the fact that they are equally key factors in determining behavior.

1.5.5 The View from Within the Mind

Gestalt

The term "gestalt" originates from German and may be translated as "whole" or "pattern." This viewpoint was presented by three Germans who had settled in the United States after moving there. According to their point of view, human conduct cannot be simply described by behavior alone or condensed into single pieces, as behaviorists have indicated it should be. They were also opposed to the idea that people are only passive participants in the environment. They held the belief that people are relatively active participants in the process of obtaining experiences from their surroundings. Gestalt psychologists place a greater focus on the mental processes that allow us to arrange sensory input into a meaningful state. These mental processes include perception, memory, and thought. They claimed, on the basis of a number of tests, that the brain instinctively organizes information received from the senses into meaningful wholes.

One of the primary pillars that support cognitive perspective is the gestalt view. At the moment, a greater number of psychologists subscribe to the cognitive approach as opposed to the behavioral perspective. Cognitive psychologists argue that memory systems should be included in the field of psychology since they have an impact on how sensory information is received, processed, stored, retrieved, and forgotten. They also think that characteristics associated to mental processes such as emotions, memories, motivation, and beliefs have an influence on our behaviors and learning, and that these influences may be positive or negative. It is reasonable to assume that the development of computers has affected this viewpoint in some way.

TAKE NOTE

The meaning behind the term "Gestalt" is that "the total is distinct from the sum of the parts."

The cognitive point of view

This viewpoint is an offshoot of structuralism and holds the belief that the majority of human behavior can be traced back to the mind. They concentrate on people's comprehension of the world, that is, how individuals think, comprehend, and think about the world that is all around them.

1.6 BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

The ever-expanding subject of psychology has given rise to a great deal of subfields that focus on certain aspects of the discipline. There are several subfields within the field of psychology. However, throughout this lecture, we will only be concentrating on a select selection of those topics that are directly associated with education.

1.6.1 Child and Adolescent Psychological Development

The study of the changes that occur in persons as they mature and grow is known as developmental psychology. It explains the changes that occur in the human body as well as how humans adjust to these changes. For instance, at what stage of development do children first become aware of themselves or identify themselves in the mirror? What is the order in which the steps of walking are performed, and how does adolescence respond to the physiological changes that occur during this period of development (puberty)? In addition, developmental psychology examines the changes that occur in an individual's cognitive and psychosocial functioning. It takes into consideration components of the environment that have an influence on the development of the person as he or she gets older. Is it possible that viewing television causes youngsters to behave badly or grow more westernized?

1.6.2 A Sociopsychological Perspective

The study of human behavior and how it is influenced by social variables is the focus of social psychology, which examines the relationship between the person and society. The socialization process, bias, peer pressure, mob justice, and how individuals regard themselves in relation to others as well as how they view others are all topics that fall under this category.

1.6.3 The Study of Cognitive Phenomena

The term "cognition" originates from a Latin word that means "to know." The study of human cognition, which encompasses all of our mental capacities and processes such as seeing, learning, remembering, thinking, reasoning, and comprehending, is the domain of cognitive psychology. It investigates how individuals get and put knowledge or information to use in their lives. It is heavily influenced by artificial intelligence, computer science, philosophy, anthropology, linguistics, biology, physics, and neuroscience, and it has tight ties to other cognitive disciplines.

1.6.4 School Psychology School psychology is a subfield of psychology that uses general psychological concepts to the evaluation, diagnosis, and treatment of behavioral and educational issues affecting children and adolescents. School psychologists are responsible for conducting psychological and psycho educational assessments, as well as counseling, consulting, and other related services. Additionally, they are knowledgeable in the legal, ethical, and administrative standards that govern the teaching profession.

1.6.5 The Scientific Study of Experiments

The study of psychological processes via the use of well controlled experiments is the focus of experimental psychology. Through the use of scientific methodology, study, experimentation, and statistical analysis, it investigates the mental processes and behaviors of humans.

1.6.6 The Psychology of Counseling

The field of counseling psychology focuses on the provision of psychological treatment to persons who are experiencing typical levels of emotional, social, vocational, educational, and developmental difficulties. Psychologists who specialize in counseling are often educated to possess a wide range of different counseling abilities.

1.6.7 The field of clinical psychology

Clinical psychology is a subfield of psychology that focuses on the study of persons who suffer from severe emotional, mental, and behavioral conditions, such as clinical depression, anxiety disorders, and psychotic disorders, and the development of effective treatments for such conditions. Clinical psychologists are psychologists who operate in clinical settings and who specialize in a select few areas of the illnesses.

SUMMARY

During this lecture, we have discussed the meaning of the term "psychology" as well as the primary aims of doing psychological research. In addition, we took a cursory look at the history of psychology by concentrating on the various points of view that have emerged since the year 1879, when the scientific method was first applied in an effort to comprehend a psychological problem and turn psychology into an independent academic discipline. The last section covered some of the subfields of psychology that are associated with the area of education.

EXERCICES 1. After making a list of the aforementioned categories, spend some time observing children in a classroom and thinking about how those observations connect to each of these categories.

2. Using a number of different publications, compile a list of the most important areas of psychology, and then connect each subject to a distinct aspect of the learning and instructing process.

3. Using your own words, expand on the summary, and then go through the lesson to check that your interpretation is correct.

REFERENCES

Any text about General Psychology that you may find.

LECTURE TWO

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND TEACHING: DEFINITION AND HISTORY

2.1 INTRODUCTION

During the prior presentation, we discussed the subject matter of psychology as well as the several subfields that fall under the umbrella of psychology. The field of Educational Psychology is one that was purposefully left out of the conversation. The entirety of this class will be devoted to this subfield, and I have no doubt that you are prepared and looking forward to immersing yourself in this field of study. This is not only for the purpose of passing your exams (which is fantastic), but also for the purpose of developing skills that you can put to use as an efficient educator. It is possible to teach without having any formal training in educational psychology. Nevertheless, you need to approach this class with the utmost seriousness if you want to be a successful teacher and if you want to enjoy being a teacher.

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

At the completion of this lecture, you should be able to: I Define Educational Psychology; (ii) Narrate a Brief History of Educational Psychology; and (iii) State the Primary Objectives of Educational Psychology.

2.2 WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO STUDY EDUCATION PSYCHOLOGY?

We learned in the first lecture that psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, and that there are various subfields within the field of psychology.

Educational psychology is the subfield of psychology that focuses on the assessment of learners' aptitudes and their progress during the learning process, as well as the creation of efficient teaching methods. Understanding learning and teaching in educational environments is improved by the use of psychological understanding. It draws on and utilizes information gleaned from a variety of various subfields within psychology, including as

• Cognitive psychology when referring to reasoning and problem solving; school psychology in determining students' abilities and the best ways and conditions necessary for individuals to realize their full potential. • Knowledge from disciplines outside of psychology contributes to educational psychologies.

The results of educational psychology study also contribute to the wider area of psychology and education in general, for example, in the process of formulating educational policy and constructing curricula based on the characteristics of the individuals being educated.

You will discover during the course that one of the primary focuses of educational psychology is on the influences that various contexts have on human learning. These areas include instructional design and implementation, curriculum creation, education for students with special needs, classroom management, the use of technology in teaching, and evaluation of learners and their performance.

ACTIVITY

Examine the lessons that are being taught at the school and compile a list of the subjects that have a direct bearing on Educational Psychology.

2.3 OBJECTIVES (FUNCTIONS) OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

As was said in the prior lesson, the primary goals of psychology are to first and foremost describe and then comprehend behavior. Therefore, the goals of educational psychology are to analyze, explain, and comprehend the following aspects of the learning process: Research in the field of educational psychology tries to provide answers to the following questions: What exactly is involved in the process of learning? How do our learning processes change as we go through the phases of development? Which aspects of a person's environment either help or hurt their ability to learn?

The goal of Educational Psychology is to establish methods for guiding learners through the learning process, using the information gathered from the questions that came before it. Students have the capabilities and capacities necessary for learning. Educational psychology directs students to improve the ways in which they employ the talents they already possess as well as to acquire new skills.

Teaching is one of the most important obligations that come with becoming a teacher. There are many who hold the misconception that teaching is simple. The reverse is true; participating in classroom instruction is a highly challenging activity. As would be anticipated, educational psychology equips educators with pedagogical strategies and certain abilities to educate. These strategies and abilities, which aid in education and are founded on the results of previous study, may be found here. Students may and do learn on their own time. Learners, on the other hand, need educators who possess effective teaching abilities in order to achieve the educational objectives set by the state.

Each and every student in the classroom is an individual. Therefore, there are individual differences between each learner in a single classroom. These differences include learners being at different stages of development (cognitively, physically, socially, and emotionally), having different abilities, temperaments, and learning skills, and being at different stages of development overall. Educational psychology equips teachers with the knowledge and abilities necessary to recognize the unique processes and characteristics of each student, allowing them to more effectively address individual differences. In order for each student to be inspired to fulfill their maximum potentials, a successful teacher would design a learning environment in the classroom that takes into account the unique differences among the students.

The learning process is profoundly influenced by the surrounding environment. The environment may be used by teachers to improve student learning. Educational psychology educates educators to recognize and manage the impact of a variety of extraneous influences. The local surroundings and circumstances, the instructional materials that are accessible, the results of research, and newly developed teaching abilities and technology advancements are all examples of external variables.

It's possible that a career as an educational psychologist may appeal to you. You need to obtain a graduate degree in educational psychology in order to work in the field of educational psychology (it has many courses). Educational psychologists are responsible for doing research on the cognitive and social processes of human development, learning, and education in addition to their roles as consultants, educators, and university instructors. Therefore, taking this class will not, on its own, qualify you to work as an educational psychologist, but it will inspire you to work toward that goal.

I believe that if you meet the requirements of Educational Psychology, develop the teaching skills, and apply them in learning settings, you will be motivated to be an effective teacher who is able to tackle teaching challenges with confidence and with a great deal of teaching satisfaction. If you meet the requirements of Educational Psychology, develop the teaching skills, and apply them in learning settings, you will also meet the requirements Who exactly is a good classroom instructor? Several works on educational psychology (Elliot et al., 2000; Santrock, 2004) note that in order for an individual to be a good educator, he or she must have a firm grasp of the following ideas and perspectives (all of which are covered in this class):

2.3.1 Expertise in the relevant subject topic

This means that you should have a solid grasp of the subject matter that you are teaching conceptually. You need to put in a lot of effort not just to learn about your topic, but also to be able to arrange this information and be in a position to add information from other fields of study that are relevant. Simply being aware of the facts is not sufficient. A teacher's lack of confidence in the classroom is often a direct result of their inadequate knowledge. Keep in mind that you don't have to share all that you know with the class since doing so might be detrimental to their learning! The content that is covered in class need to be relevant, both to the skills of the pupils and to the material covered in the curriculum.

2.3.2 The pupils' level of knowledge

It is important for you, as a teacher, to get to know your pupils. Dealing with students that you are unfamiliar with may be a very trying experience. Spending time with students allows you to learn both about the class as a whole and about each individual pupil as a distinct entity. They each come from a unique background, which enriches the lesson. Be aware of their progress in the areas of physical, mental, and social development. You will come into touch with pupils who are extraordinary and who may need a unique approach and attention from you as a teacher.

2.3.3 The method of education

In the study of educational psychology, this is a very important aspect to take into consideration. When you say you know your students, you should also be able to say that you know how they learn, that is, the abilities and techniques that students use to acquire new information. Your knowledge of this component will be a benefit when it comes to constructing your teaching techniques, since these tactics need to be consistent with the learning processes of the students you are working with.

2.3.4 Instructional techniques

There is more to instructional tactics than just transmitting information to pupils under the erroneous assumption that they are unengaged when they are in the classroom. The educational tactics that are most likely to be successful are those that encourage students to develop introspective abilities, think critically, and explore their world. As a result, they ensure that every kid receives an effective education. In order to effectively instruct your pupils, you need to first determine what objectives are reasonable and then devise a strategy to help them attain those goals.

2.3.5 Motivational skills

Even if the most effective instructional practices are in place, there is always a chance that students may encounter roadblocks in the course of their learning processes. Learning is a natural process, but it may be hindered or prevented at school by a number of factors, some of which are internal to the student and others of which are external. If you want to be an effective teacher, you need to create the conditions that will lead to students developing self-motivation. This means creating an environment in which students are eager to learn and remain focused on the task for their own personal satisfaction rather than as a means of pleasing others.

TAKE NOTE

If a kid is not interested in learning, there is no purpose in having a policy that requires them to attend school and there is also no value in making them go against their will.

2.3.6 Classroom management skills

A classroom setting is made up of a variety of people and variables, each of which may have an impact on the teaching and learning that takes place there. Therefore, one of the most essential roles of a teacher is to develop and maintain an atmosphere in the classroom that is favorable to learning, which means keeping pupils interested on the subject that they are supposed to be working on. You will need to be equipped with methods of arranging your pupils in order to facilitate efficient learning, and you will need to have a system for avoiding issues in place. It is impossible to learn at one's full potential when there is disorder or a lack of organization.

2.3.7 Assessment strategies

A teacher has to know whether or not the pupils he or she is teaching are successful in their learning. This is something that may be accomplished if the educator is able to create or acquire the right tools, as well as provide precise evaluations and interpretations of the results. Assessment helps one to identify the performance and requirements of the students, which in turn leads to the development of appropriate choices and activities that will enhance the performance of each individual student.

2.3.8 Abilities pertaining to technology

Since we live in the age of information technology, having a solid foundation in many technical areas is essential to one's capacity for success in today's world. You'll find that having these abilities makes it much easier to obtain information and use technology into your instructional tactics. You will also be able to force pupils to make use of technology as part of their educational experience.

ACTIVITY

First, make a list of the ideas that have been discussed, and then, in one of the schools, watch how the teachers are delivering their lessons. Based on your observations, determine which components are associated with each of the concepts.

2.4 HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Lecture One of them provided us with an overview of the development of psychology. In this section, we will concentrate our attention primarily on the development of Educational Psychology.

H. Ebbinghaus, a German, was the first person to conduct a scientific study on memory in 1885. His research focused on how the learning process is connected to memory. However, the area of educational psychology as a standalone discipline did not emerge in the United States until shortly before the turn of the 20th century. In the next part, we are going to have an overview of major players in the development of the area, and in the following sections of this course, we are going to analyze their methodologies in more depth.

William James (1842-1910) wrote a book and delivered lectures on the topic of using psychological principles in the instruction of young children. Instead of doing research in labs, he placed a greater emphasis on the utilization of direct observation in the actual learning and teaching environments of classrooms.

John Dewey, who lived from 1859 to 1952, was a significant figure in the field of applied psychology. By founding the first educational psychology laboratory in the United States, he had a significant impact on the science of psychology. The concept that a kid is an active learner rather than the then-common assumption that children are passive learners was the most significant contribution he made to the field. On addition to this, he placed a strong emphasis on the fact that it is the job of the educator to instruct pupils in how to think critically and adjust their behavior in response to the realities that exist outside the classroom. He played a significant role in ensuring that all children, irrespective of their gender, socioeconomic status, or ethnicity, received an education that met their needs.

In the field of educational psychology, Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949) placed a strong emphasis on using a scientific method. He was the first to implement testing and grading systems into the educational process. Thorndike's theories served as a foundation for B.F. Skinner's work. However, he claimed that the subject matter of psychology was not to involve mental processes but rather need to center only on the behaviors that can be seen. The phrase for this kind of viewpoint is the behavioral perspective. The method used by Skinner established the optimal circumstances under which learning may take place. The instructor implements a system of incentives designed to encourage desirable student behavior and/or performance. He invented the idea of programmed learning, which is a method of education in which a student is encouraged at each stage along the path that leads to the desired outcome.

Benjamin Bloom developed the taxonomy of cognitive abilities in the year 1956. This taxonomy revealed the aspirations that educators had for their students. Remembering, comprehending, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating are the cognitive talents that he recognized, and the sequence in which they appear is as follows, beginning with the lowest level and working up to the highest level.

Educational psychologists of the 1980s concentrated on the cognitive components of human learning, as advocated by Dewey and James but overlooked by Skinner and his fellow behaviorists. This was in contrast to the behaviorists who followed Skinner. They conducted study on and applied the ideas of cognitive psychology, such as memory, thinking, reasoning, and perception, on the basis that these factors play an important role in how information is received and processed. Currently, educational psychology takes into account non-academic factors that have an impact on students, such as the part that culture plays in the educational process. In addition to this, it places an emphasis on notions of self-regulating learning and metacognition, which may be translated as either "knowing about knowing" or "knowing about knowing about knowing."

2.5 CONTRIBUTIONS OF OTHER FIELDS AND THEORIES

During our conversation on general psychology, we brought up a number of examples of how different academic fields have made important contributions to the area. In a similar vein, advancements made in other subfields of psychology have an impact on Educational Psychology, and the reverse is also true. One excellent illustration of this is the incorporation of recent advances in educational psychology into the practice of special education. Discoveries made in the fields of information, communication, and technology (ICT) are providing light on the way in which human brains process information. In addition, recent developments in information and communications technology are increasingly being used as a research tool in the field of educational psychology and as a teaching and learning aid in our classrooms.

SUMMARY This has been a condensed overview of Educational Psychology as well as its development through time into a distinct subfield within the discipline of Psychology. The most essential takeaway from the presentation was the compilation of a list of the most important ideas in Educational Psychology that one must comprehend in order to become an effective educator.

EXERCISES

1. Provide further detail to the summary using your own words, and then read the lecture to ensure that your understanding is correct.

2. Obtain a sheet of paper and make a list of the benefits that you anticipate obtaining from this Educational Psychology class. Put the paper somewhere secure and come back to it after you've finished with this class.

REFERENCES

The authors of the study are Elliot, Stephen N., Kractochwill, Thomas R., Cook, Joan L., and Travers, John F. (2000). Educational Psychology: The Study of How to Teach and Learn Most Effectively New York, United States of America: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Author: Santrock, John W. (2004). Psychological Studies in Education (2nd Edition). New York, United States of America: McGraw-Hill Higher Education

LECTURE THREE

RESEARCH IN EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In Lectures One and Two, we learned that the discipline of psychology is one that takes a scientific approach to its study. As a result, it is to be anticipated that prior to delving deeper into the realm of Educational Psychology, we will first investigate the procedures that are used to ascertain the content of this field, and then we will investigate their application in the processes of learning and instructing.

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

At the end of this lecture, you should be able to: I Explain the significance of research (ii) Define descriptive research (iii) Describe and identify single-case studies (iv) Describe correlation studies (v) Describe and identify the components of laboratory experiments (vi) Describe and identify randomized field experiments (vii) Describe action research I Explain the significance of research (ii) Define descriptive research (ii) Describe single-case studies (iv) Describe

3.2 WHAT EXACTLY IS CONSIDERED TO BE A SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH?

Research in the scientific community is judged not on the phenomena that is being examined but on the methodology used to conduct the inquiry. The approach used by science is one that is objective, methodical, and can be independently verified. It is objective since its foundation is in the observable and/or quantifiable components of the situation. Educational psychologists will not agree to resolutions that might be considered biased since they are based only on the personal ideas, opinions, conjecture, or experience of the individual. The concept of verifiability is predicated on the idea that the results may be independently validated by someone else who does the same investigation. Therefore, the scientific method is founded on the accumulation of empirical data.

The scientific method is a methodical way of approaching a problem since it uses predetermined steps to carry out an inquiry. The following is an outline of the primary steps involved in carrying out a research project in Educational Psychology:

3.2.1 Developing a mental image of the issue

The first step is to identify a topic that may be investigated further (also known as a "research problem"). A question that can be resolved by doing investigation is considered a problem. The scientific method is unable to provide an explanation for some topics that we may be interested in researching. It is not possible to use scientific techniques to determine whether or not God exists or whether or not God has any connection on a student's academic success. One's own personal experiences in their professional area (for instance, teaching and learning experiences in school settings) might give rise to a research topic, or the problem can be established based on the results of previous research (normally research findings raise new questions that need to be answered through scientific methods). One example of a research challenge may be to determine why the vast majority of kids from area "A" are leaving school and why the academic achievement of the vast majority of those who are continuing their education is subpar. When designing a research issue, one has to draw on existing theories as well as other resources that are linked to the phenomena that is being investigated. This newfound information not only provides an update on the state of the study but also contributes to the formulation of the hypothesis. A hypothesis is a statement that indicates the predicted outcomes of the research as well as the relationships between the many variables that will be studied. Kids whose parents have only completed elementary schooling are more likely to drop out of school than students whose parents have completed secondary schooling. This might be the hypothesis for the research challenge that was presented before. The components of the hypothesis are referred to as the variables. The variables that are being considered in the previous hypothesis are "parents with secondary education," "parents with elementary school education," and "completing school." Consequently, determining and making clear the research issue becomes the primary activity of this initial stage.

3.2.2 The Accumulation of Data

During this stage, you will be tasked with identifying the tools and methods that will be used to collect the data required to solve the study topic. At this stage, the hypothesis will be put to the test using the information that has been acquired. It is not the validity of the hypothesis that is tested, but rather whether or not the evidence gathered indicate that it should be rejected or accepted. Data collection may be done in a variety of different methods, all of which are going to be covered in the next section.

3.2.3 Conclusions

The obtained raw data is then processed using statistical methods in order to get findings that can be evaluated and interpretations that can be drawn from them. A statistical analysis is used to assess if the findings were the product of a coincidence or whether they were the consequence of circumstances that were either generated or observed by the researcher. Conclusions are drawn based on the data, and these conclusions suggest how the findings might be used in various scenarios.

ACTIVITY

Find five problems that are currently being faced in the area of education that you might use as the basis for a research question.

3.3 MAJOR RESEARCH METHODS

In this section, we will examine the primary fundamental approaches that are utilized to acquire data. As was just said, the information obtained here will be put to use in the testing of the hypothesis. The nature of the research, or the issue that is being looked into, is what ultimately decides the technique that will be used in an investigation.

In the field of Educational Psychology, the most common forms of research methodologies are referred to as quantitative techniques and qualitative methods, respectively. Measurements and test scores are employed in procedures that are considered quantitative. Quantification is performed on the study variables, and statistical analysis is used in order to provide an interpretation of the findings.

In academic contexts, qualitative research methods are used for the purpose of examining theoretical factors that cannot be proven but can only be inferred and are difficult to measure. The events, processes, motivation, attitudes, and personal experiences that you have had may all be described using this technique. For instance, a participant may be asked to explain how he or she feels in response to a certain set of circumstances, and then that person's response may be recorded and examined.

The following is a discussion of some of the ways that are used to gather data for research:

3.3.1 A Study of a Descriptive Nature

In this sort of qualitative research, the status of the behavior in the research topic that is being investigated is determined. The primary objective is to get an understanding of and be able to articulate the current state of affairs. Therefore, the researcher will gather data in order to test their theory. A descriptive research is conducted in order to get information on the beliefs, perspectives, and behavior patterns held by pupils.

Observation is one of the methods that may be used to gather data in descriptive research. Natural observation is when a researcher observes a group of people in their natural environment while remaining detached from the activities of the group they are researching. This kind of observation is considered to be scientific. Observing kids and instructors in a classroom, cafeteria, or even on a playing field is one option for fulfilling this requirement. Participant observation is a kind of observation in which the researcher (acting as the observer) is actively involved in the activities of the group being observed. Therefore, the observer is not only a member of the group but also participates in the process of data recording.

An additional approach in descriptive research is survey research, which is choosing a number of individuals (sample) to gather data that reflects the perspectives, opinions, attitudes, and/or beliefs of a population. Data may be acquired in a number of different ways, including via the use of questionnaires, interviews, or both. Because of advances in technology, these instruments may be given in person, over e-mail, and/or over the phone. Alternatively, they can be administered remotely.

3.3.2 A Study of a Single Case

The scope of this research is limited to the examination of a single subject or a particular occurrence. It is used in situations in which an opportunity presents itself for a research that, for either ethical or practical reasons, could not otherwise be conducted. We are unable to give kids addictive medications in order to assess their degree of hostility against other people since this would be unethical. On the other hand, we are able to monitor the degrees of hostility shown by pupils who have been found to be drug users. The results of a case study have the potential to contribute to our development of an understanding of a phenomena. On the other hand, since the data cannot be examined statistically, one cannot generalize the interpretations of those results to apply to other persons.

3.3.3 An examination of correlations

The purpose of this research is to investigate the connection that exists between three or more variables that are linked. It gives some indication as to whether or not there is a link. An strategy based on statistics is used in order to ascertain the extent of the connection, as well as whether or not it is constructive or destructive. The value of the connection score ranges between the coefficients of -1 (negative) and +1 (positive) (positive). If the score is very near to 0, it indicates that there is no connection between the variables. There is no correlation between the height of the student and the score that they get on the exam. A score that is close to -1 indicates a negative association, which means that a rise in one variable will result in a drop in the other variable, and vice versa. The correlation between the number of incorrect answers and overall score on a test is an excellent illustration of this. If there are more incorrect answers, then your score will become lower; conversely, if there are less incorrect answers, then your score will get higher. A score that is close to +1 indicates a positive association, which suggests that if one variable grows, it also increases in the other variable. The score on the exam goes up according to the amount of questions that are answered correctly.

The degree of closeness between the two parties enables one to make accurate forecasts. The fact that there is a link between the variables does not, however, imply that there is a relationship between the variables and the effects they have on one another; in other words, one cannot conclude that one of the variables is the cause of the relationship. The academic success of a student is not determined by the number of questions answered correctly or incorrectly on a test; rather, it is determined by a variety of other criteria, including mental capacity, the student's study abilities, and the degree of difficulty of the exam.

3.3.4 Experimental Research

Experiential research is used by educational psychologists in order to ascertain the existence of a cause-effect link between the various factors, or to discover whether or not a certain variable is the root cause of a particular condition or behavior. Experiential research is carried out in a laboratory or other controlled setting, and during this kind of study, the variables or elements that are believed to produce or impact the particular behavior are carefully altered. The term "independent variable" refers to the aspect of the experiment that is being controlled, whereas "dependent variable" refers to the aspect of the experiment that is being observed or assessed. Therefore, the independent variable is the factor that is thought to have an influence, cause, or impact on the variable that is being studied (the dependent variable). It is possible that the independent variable has an impact on the dependent variable if there is a change in the dependent variable as a result of a change in the independent variable. This is what we mean when we state that there is a cause-effect connection between the two variables.

In the majority of experimental studies, there are two different groups of people involved: the experimental group and the control group. At the outset of the study, there are no differences between the two groups in any respect. These groupings were determined using a process of sampling at random. This method removes any possible bias on the part of the researcher by providing each participant in the study with an equal opportunity to be placed in either of the two study groups. The experimental group is the one that is altered, whereas the control group is treated exactly the same as the experimental group with the exception of the factor that is being modified. The independent variable in this study is the factor that was altered in the experimental group, and the dependent variable is the behavioural outcomes that were compared between the two groups.

3.3.5 Investigations into the duration of time

These are studies that are based on fees that are associated with certain time periods. It may be of interest to us to learn the qualities shared by pupils whose development has progressed to varying degrees. Cross-sectional research and longitudinal research are the two primary methods that are used in studies that cover longer time periods.

• Down cross-sectional research, groups of children are chosen according to their age, and the study then zeroes in on the issue area of interest. The purpose of this exercise is to compare and contrast the features of the various age groups.

• In longitudinal research, the same group of people is studied over the course of a period of time that is often longer than one year and may endure for a significant amount of time, for example, from birth until death. Throughout the course of the research project, one keeps track of the many shifts that take place among the participants in the group.

3.3.6 Research Based on Action

This is study that was conducted in a classroom or school by a teacher or many teachers, as opposed to a psychologist or other research professional, with the intention of finding a solution to a particular issue that had arisen there. The results are incorporated into efforts to correct and enhance various aspects of the learning and teaching processes.

Action research is a method of professional development in which educators improve their teaching by acquiring new problem-solving abilities via the application of research methodologies to real-world classroom challenges. Therefore, the instructor has to be aware of how to develop questions that correctly represent the topic or scenario at hand, as well as how to define the terminology included within the question, gather data, and employ analytical procedures that provide conclusions that are trustworthy and legitimate. The results are used as a basis for the educator to develop recommendations for either enhancing the teaching process or resolving the problematic situation. The implication is that in order to be a great educator, you are going to have to teach, but you are also going to have to constantly do research in the classroom. When doing action research, you may prevent the introduction of personal biases by adhering to the same processes that are used in other forms of research; nonetheless, you will still get solid data that will lead to a successful course of action.

To illustrate this point, a teacher could notice that one particular student in the class is consistently disruptive, and that other students continue to defend this kid despite the fact that they have been warned several times. Firstly, the instructor formulates a question “What causes Bahati to create commotion? The instructor should explain what commotion is. The instructor will then go on to the next step, which is data gathering. The instructor takes notes on when and how often the student causes a ruckus, and then uses interview questions to determine the reasons behind the student's disruptive behavior. Additionally, he or she may keep track of when and how often the help of the other pupils is offered. After that comes the process of analyzing the data. It is possible that the outcomes of the study will show that Bahati and his or her colleagues lack the motivation to learn the topic that the instructor is teaching. A plan of action is developed by the instructors on the basis of the results about how to increase students' levels of motivation to study their respective subjects.

TAKE NOTE

Every approach to data collection comes with a unique set of benefits and drawbacks.

ACTIVITY

Identify the benefits and drawbacks of each of the approaches of data collection described in the previous paragraphs.

3.4 ETHICS IN RESEARCH

There are a number of ethical considerations that need to be taken into account whenever a research project, including action research, is being carried out. In the event that they are disregarded, the procedures and conclusions of the study have the potential to inflict damage on the participants, be discredited, and/or result in legal measures being taken against the researcher.

• Ensuring the health and safety of those taking part is the first measure of precaution that must be taken. Make certain that none of the subjects are harmed in any way by the study, whether it physically, intellectually, or emotionally.

•

Before beginning the process of collecting data, you need first get authorization from the relevant authorities and the agreement of the people whose data will be collected. You are obligated to obtain approval from the participants' parents or instructors if the participants are too young to be able to make choices on their own.

• If the experiment requires the use of animals, ensure that the animals are cared for in a compassionate manner.

SUMMARY

During this lecture, we discussed some of the goals that should be pursued by researchers working in the area of educational psychology. In addition, we discussed the primary aspects of a research project as well as the techniques you used to gather information. You were tasked with analyzing the various approaches to data collection and determining their respective benefits and drawbacks. Please participate in the activity since you never know when it can come in helpful!

EXERCISES

1. Educate yourself on the rules and guidelines that govern the conduct of research in your organization and nation.

2. After reading a number of papers on educational research, determine if the study in question is a qualitative or quantitative investigation. Also specify the procedures that were used to acquire data for each of the separate studies.

3. Expand upon the summary using your own words, and then read through the lesson to check that your understanding is correct.

Author: Santrock, John W. (2004). Psychological Studies in Education (2nd Edition). New York, United States of America: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. A New Beginning:

LECTURE FOUR

PROGRESSION OF THE INFANT / JUVENILE

4.1 INTRODUCTION

In this lecture, we will examine students as they progress in their learning throughout the course of their lives. It is important to keep in mind that in order to be a good teacher, you need to have understanding about your pupils. This is because you cannot educate kids whom you do not know. Knowledge of child development provides you with an understanding of your pupils, who may be at various phases of development, allowing you to educate them in a manner that is suitable for their stage of development. In addition, you may work with the same pupils for an extended period of time, during which time there will undoubtedly be some changes in their developmental progress. You are required to take note of these shifts and adjust your behavior in accordance with the new circumstances.

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

At the conclusion of this lecture, you should be able to: I Identify hereditary and environmental factors that underlie learning ability; (ii) Distinguish between continuous and discontinuous theories of development; (iii) Describe the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development of students; and (iv) Identify the diversity that exists within the classroom.

4.2 MAIN CONCEPTS

First, let's take a look at what psychologists mean when they talk about "grow" and "development" in their field. Both of these ideas are predicated on the observation that people, during the course of their lives, go from one stage to a more advanced level. Alterations are a defining feature of both this process and its phases. Grow is the appropriate word to use when the changes being discussed are quantitative, such as a rise or reduction in the number of items. A excellent illustration of this is the pupils' heights and weights. Height and weight are two aspects of a child's development that often develop (read: grow) in tandem with the passage of time. We anticipate that children who are two years old will be smaller and lighter in comparison to when they would be in primary school when they reach this age.

Changes in quality may be brought about via development. These are not readily apparent but indicate that alterations inside the person have taken place. A excellent example is language development. At birth children cannot talk however around two years they begin to speak. Language spoken at the age of two is qualitatively inferior relative to the language used at four or at ten. The changes manifested in language don’t mean that the brain has changed but rather some reorganization has taken place that account for the differences between the stages.

In this lecture we look at the development of the students in three main areas i.e. physical, cognitive and psychosocial. These areas develop simultaneously and are, as mentioned before, interrelated. As you have noticed on the development of students there is quite a variation in rate of development. In a group of students of the same age and in the same class and all still growing you find some of them are taller while others are shorter for their age, some heavy and others not so heavy, some have language that is well advanced for their age while for others their language is below that of the normal age group. Also, there are developmental variations within the individual himself/herself. Some may grow fast in terms of weight but more slowly in height. The implication is that students of the same age are similar in some aspects and different in others.

The periods of child development are classified by psychologists into four periods. Notice that, as mentioned above, there is variation on the onset and end of the periods. These periods are:

• Infancy: starts from birth to 18 to 24 months. It is characterized by total dependence on the caregivers at the beginning. During this period a child begins to develop sensorimotor coordination, walking, language, thinking and learning.

• Early childhood: starts at the end of infancy and extends to 5 or 6 years. Sometimes this is called preschool period. The child is more self-sufficient and has developed some skills related to improved sensorimotor coordination.

• Middle to late childhood: extends from 6 to 11 years. Most of children in this stage are in primary schools (elementary schools) (elementary schools). They have developed self-control and acquire primary skills of learning i.e. reading, writing and math.

• Adolescence: begins around 11 years and extends to between 18. This is a transitional period from childhood to adulthood that is characterized by rapid body changes that includes the development of sexual organs functions. Also individuals in this stage seek self independence. Most complete primary school at this stage, and most of secondary school students are in this period.

4.3 ROLE OF HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF STUDENT

Nature and environment, also known as nurture, are in continual dialogue with one another throughout the process of development. The aspect of nature consists of the biological processes that begin at the time of conception, such as the formation of the genetic inheritance via the interaction of the genes found in the sperm and those found in the ova. The act of conceiving a child has a significant part in defining the pace of growth of the body, measured in terms of weight and height; the development of the brain and motor abilities; and the changes in the body that are induced by hormones. In addition, there are aspects of human potential that are predetermined by genetics. These aspects include the processes of learning, the development of language, and motor coordination.

Both the physical and social surrounds are considered to be part of the environment. The individual's physical environment is critical to the individual's ability to survive, as well as to his or her growth and the learning process. According to the findings of certain research (Galler et al., 1987), children who had severe kwashiorkor were more likely to have learning issues later in school, and those who were exposed to lead later in life were more likely to have physiological problems (Patrick, 2006). It was shown that children who were exposed to surroundings that were physically exciting had a greater level of linguistic development than those who were exposed to environments that were less stimulating (UNESCO, 1987). The socio-emotional processes of the kid, also known as the child's emotional and personality development, are heavily influenced by the child's social environment, which takes the shape of the child's relationships with other people. As a result, we can see that part of the potentials are defined by inheritance, and the effect of environment on heredity either facilitates or impedes the process of learning in a student.

TAKE NOTE

As a teacher, you are a component of the setting, and although your objective is to promote student learning and the comprehensive growth of their skills, you also have the responsibility of avoiding becoming a factor that inhibits the students' capacity for educational growth.

4.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD'S INTELLECT DURING CHILDHOOD

It is common knowledge that the brain is the primary organ responsible for cognitive functions. The functions of distinct areas of the brain in terms of learning and cognition are delineated by the anatomical divisions that exist within it. Only a few of the more important components will be discussed here. Before we continue, it is important to keep in mind that our understanding of how the brain works is far from complete, and there are ongoing discussions on the scientific underpinnings of learning.

The cerebral hemispheres are the two sides of the brain, which are joined by a structure called the corpus callosum. Although at first glance the two spheres seem to be the same, there are important distinctions in their uses. Cerebral lateralization refers to the process through which different spheres of the brain develop specialized functions. The left side of the body is controlled by the hemisphere on the right, whereas the right side of the body is controlled by the hemisphere on the left. Therefore, if you are right handed, you are lateralized to the left, and if you are left handed, you are lateralized to the right. The left hemisphere of the brain is where speech is located for most individuals. The right hemisphere of the brain is primarily responsible for the localization of nonverbal processes such as spatial perception, visual activity, and emotions. However, investigations have shown that this simplistic view of the brain is incorrect since both atmospheres are engaged in some way in every activity that occurs in the brain. Both hemispheres of the brain are involved in the operation of more complex mental processes, such as reasoning and creativity.

There are four lobes in the brain. The functions of the frontal lobe include both motor activity and thinking. The functions of the temporal lobe include hearing. The functions of the parietal lobe include bodily sensations. The functions of the occipital lobe include vision.

There are still certain gaps in our understanding of how the brain develops. Neurons, also known as nerve cells, expand both in size and quantity as they mature. Myelination is a process in which the neurons get coated by an insulating layer. This process results in a rise in the size of the brain as well as an increase in the speed with which signals move through the nervous system (Santrock, 2004). Myelination in the regions of the brain that are associated to concentration and attention does not become complete until the end of late childhood. This explains why children who are younger than this stage have trouble focusing on a single activity for an extended period of time.

We shall be using the theory of cognitive development that was presented by the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) while explaining this process. In the beginning, he received his education in the fields of biology and philosophy. While he was dealing with the results of IQ tests given to children, he saw that the responses produced by younger children were qualitatively distinct from those provided by older children. He was of the opinion that young children react to what they see, touch, and experiment with in order to actively form their own worlds. According to him, the manner in which we humans react to the environment is not something that we learn but rather something that we inherit as a style of intellectual functioning, which means that it is a function that has been there from birth.

The theory of cognitive development proposed by Piaget may be broken down into four primary phases. They are significant because there are subsequent phases within each step. However, before we look at them, let's establish several important terms that are central to the theory:

• A notion, or an orderly sequence of thoughts or behaviors that create one structured unit, is referred to as a schema. A scheme (behavior) is something like riding a bicycle; a scheme is something like a dog or an image of a dog; and teaching is a scheme (a complex one). The world is much easier to arrange and comprehend when we have schemes to guide us.

• Adaptation is a psychological process that enables youngsters to make use of and adjust schemas in response to new experiences. This system incorporates two distinct processes, which are referred to respectively as assimilation and accommodation. When a kid merges new information into current knowledge, this process is known as assimilation. This means that the youngster is taking in new things, events, and concepts into the existing schemas. The process of accommodation takes place when our mental structures are altered as a result of new information. Therefore, assimilation is the process by which we modify the environment so that it conforms to previously established cognitive structures, while accommodation is the process by which we adapt our cognitive structures in order to accommodate something new that has been introduced into the environment.

• Equilibration. When we are confronted with a scenario that does not fit into our mental framework, we experience disequilibrium, also known as a conflict, while we attempt to comprehend the new circumstance. The term "equilibration" refers to the process of bringing about a resolution to a disagreement by means of assimilation and accommodation.

• The process of organizing separate actions or thoughts into a single, more involved behavior or notion is referred to as "organization." Because of this, you will have a cognitive system that operates effectively.

The mechanisms described above are fundamentally important to how youngsters interpret their surroundings and how they incorporate that understanding into their mental architecture. Now that we have this information, we will examine the four phases of cognitive growth in further detail. These phases follow a predetermined pattern, and each one reveals that children think in a certain manner at that particular age. The distinctions between the phases are qualitative rather than quantitative in character. This means that the differences are not dependent on "what" or the quantity of thoughts a kid has, but rather on "how" a child thinks. Therefore, the thinking process in the stage that follows the preceding stage in the sequence of cognitive growth is more complicated and accurate than it was in the stage that came before it. The names given to these phases are the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, and formal operations stages respectively. Let's take a look at each of these steps in their respective order.

TAKE NOTE

Every kid progresses through the same stages, but at their own individual rates.

4.4.1 The stage known as the sensorimotor stage

This covers the period from birth up to the age of two. When we talk about a kid being in the sensorimotor stage, we mean that they are in the process of discovering their surroundings via the use of their senses, such as seeing, hearing, and touching. It is via the coordination of these experiences that the infant creates the first schemas, and it is this process that forms the framework for the beginning of the beginning of cognitive development.

At the beginning of this stage, the child's responses are through reflex actions, which are unlearned, innate reflexes such as sucking anything that touches the mouth or grasping any object that touches the palm of the hand. For example, sucking anything that touches the mouth or grasping any object that touches the palm of the hand. Through these reflex movements the infant becomes aware of sensations induced by these activities and utilizes them to adapt to the surroundings. At this stage, which is referred to as the fundamental cyclic response, the majority of the acts that are consciously repeated involve solely the body, such as sucking (sucking involves fingers and mouth). In later stages, the responses will include something other than the kid him or herself (a secondary circular reaction), such as grasping an item (use of hand and the object). Then, in order to accomplish anything, they coordinate a number of separate activities. A kid often begins to experiment with their environment between the ages of 12 and 18 months, such as by purposefully dumping items to see what would occur (Tertiary circular reaction).

Therefore, it is at this period that the kid builds the first schemas via the processes of assimilation and accommodation in order to adapt to the environment that he or she lives in. It is the first step in the process of getting things organized. Another crucial component of this period is the development of language, which involves the process of linking sounds with particular things or happenings. They also acquire a feeling of object permanence, which is the realization that things persist even when they are not visible to the eye. Prior to that point, children do not search for items that have been removed or blocked out of their line of sight, or that cannot be seen, heard, or touched. The infant's environment starts to become more structured and predictable as the youngster develops a feeling of object permanence, which is highly important. In addition, the kid reaches this stage when they become conscious of the fact that they themselves may be the cause of an activity. In addition, the child's increasing mobility allows them to investigate farther away items, which in turn leads to the development of new mental capabilities.

As they progress through this stage, they become capable of walking, which gives them more access to the world around them. They had to rely on other people to bring them stuff before they could walk, but now that they can walk, they are able to roam about freely and investigate their environment. Consequently, infants learn throughout the sensorimotor period by making use of their senses and actively investigating their surroundings.

Touch the palm of youngster less than 12 months old and note his/her responses.

4.4.2 Preoperational stage

The period lasts anywhere from two years up to seven years. According to Piaget operations are acts that humans conduct cognitively involving knowing an item, thinking and manipulating concepts. A excellent illustration of this is when we mentally compare items in order to determine the similarities and differences between them. Even when the kid has begun to utilize language at the preoperational period, it does not mean that he or she is yet capable of cognitively manipulating objects. The usage of symbols is the primary indicator of a child's mental functioning throughout this period of development.

The infant develops the cognitive capacity to mentally represent an absent object, which is evidence of the development of thinking. The use of language grows fast; kids participate in simulating activities wherein an item (let’s say a piece of wood) may represent a home, automobile or person. Animism is the philosophical belief that inanimate things have a soul and may think for themselves; this idea is explored in the play.

Egocentrism is another trait associated with this period of development. This is inability to know and realize that other people perceive items from their point of view and instead they assume that the other person is seeing the object as s/he is seeing it from his/her position. A youngster sitting in front of the room gazing at something in the center of the room believes that a person looking at the same object from the rear of the room has the same view of the object as himself/herself (the child’s perspective). Have you ever heard a kid declare that the moon is following them wherever they go? Because of this trait, children of this age may have a desire for the companionship of other children, even though they typically participate in their own play and have internal conversations.

TAKE NOTE

You are wasting your time and energy if you try to get a youngster of this age to see things from your perspective by pushing them.

Centration is a child's propensity to concentrate and focus on just one part of an item, while ignoring the other characteristics of the object, despite the fact that those other aspects are vital features of the object. Centration is referred to as "centering." When a kid is at this stage, you should give them an assortment of things that are similar to one another but have various colors and forms, and instruct them to arrange them in groups. It is quite possible that they will classify things into categories by paying attention just to the colors of things and ignoring the forms of those things. Children who are still in the preoperational stage do not yet have the capacity to practice conservation, which is the ability to understand that the characteristics of an item do not change regardless of how its form changes. Even when the liquid is transferred into a container of a different size or form, the amount of the liquid will stay the same for adults. A youngster who does not practice conservation may mistakenly believe that the amount of water that can fit into a container that is narrower than when it was in a container that is wider. This is because of irreversibility, which refers to the fact that the youngster is unable to mentally reverse the processes of his or her own thinking.

As we have seen, at the preoperational stage, toddlers learn through interacting with actual items that are present in their environment. They develop their understanding of the world around them via the use of pictures and symbols. Children are unable to see things from the perspective of others because of their egocentric nature.

4.4.3 Proceeding to the Stage of Concrete Operations

This period of time lasts from the ages of 7 through 11. Children in this stage are able to transcend the limits of the preoperational stage by employing reasoning that incorporates concrete processes. This means that they are able to cope with genuine concrete circumstances, but they are unable to deal with abstract situations. The youngster may now demonstrate conservation since he or she is able to reverse mental activities and take into consideration various facets of the item or event rather of concentrating exclusively on one part of it. Thinking that is centered on the self declines as well. A youngster who has reached this stage is able to do addition by counting tangible objects, most often their fingers. The situation becomes problematic when the total is more than 10 and they are both wearing shoes. You have probably seen youngsters of this age bringing little sticks or bottle tops strung together on their way to school so that they may practice their math skills.

Classification is one of the hallmarks of this stage. Classification refers to the process of selecting items from a large group and organizing those items into sets or categories based on the similarities between them. In addition, they are able to recognize that a subject may belong to more than one category at the same time; for instance, a single woman may simultaneously fulfill the roles of daughter, mother, sister, wife, and grandmother.

A kid that has reached this developmental milestone is able to sort objects in accordance with their relative sizes, such as from the smallest to the biggest or from the tallest to the shortest, or vice versa. They were given 10 sticks of varying heights, which they are now able to arrange in height order, starting with the least and working their way up to the tallest. This is called seriation, and it is a skill that children do not have at the preoperational stage since they are unable to compare more than two things at the same time. As a result of their sequential arrangement, they are able to reason about connections and arrive at logical conclusions (transitivity). They are able to draw the conclusion that item "C" is taller than object "A" after they have realized that object "B" is taller than object "A," and that object "C" is taller than object "B."

ACTIVITY

Spend some time in the lower grades of a primary school, namely in standard one and standard two classes. It is important to make notes on the features of youngsters who are in the preoperational stage.

4.4.4 The Stage of Formalized Operations

Piaget's theory of cognitive development has reached its fourth and final stage now. It begins between the ages of 11 and 12 roughly (during adolescence). A youngster is only able to carry out tangible activities by making use of actual items at the preceding stage of development. On the other hand, throughout this period of development, adolescents have the capacity to think in ways that are abstract, idealistic, and logical. They are able to communicate themselves without having to depend on physical items, and they can solve issues that are given to them verbally.

They are able to distinguish between what is really happening and what could happen in the future, which is one of the features that defines them. They have created a kind of thinking known as hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which allows them to think abstractly in a methodical way and includes the creation of hypotheses as well as methods for testing them. As part of their strategy, they collect as much information as they can and investigate the many ways in which the issue may be solved.

4.5 Implications of the Theory for Educators • It is imperative that we recognize Piaget's contribution to the field of developmental psychology, particularly with regard to cognitive development. His idea provides evidence that illustrates how actively engaged students are in the process of learning. This is shown through a number of different concepts, including adaptation, organization, assimilation, accommodation, and equilibrium, amongst others.

• According to Piaget's theory, children's mental makeup may be qualitatively distinct from that of adults as well as from one another, depending on where they are in the stages of cognitive development. They are constantly adjusting to their surroundings, and the environment has an effect on the cerebral structures they possess as well. It is the responsibility of the educator to get an understanding of the students' mental functioning and to cultivate a classroom atmosphere that promotes assimilation and accommodation.

• We have a responsibility to acknowledge and comprehend the fact that the responses of children are not "bad" or "strange," but rather statements that indicate the condition of their brain functioning. Just try to imagine how you would have responded to the students' replies if you had been exposed to Piaget's theory beforehand.

• Piaget based a significant portion of his theory on observations that he made of his own three children. If we are aware of the most significant things to look for, we will be able to monitor the mental processes of our own children as well as those of our pupils. The cognitive level of development of children may be inferred from their drawings, symbolic plays, and replies, as well as the kinds of activities that should be assigned to children of different ages. Take the children's comments seriously and do an in-depth study on them rather than taking them at face value.

The cognitive developmental stages of the pupils should serve as the basis for the curriculum and learning activities that are intended for the youngsters. The pupils should be progressively moved on to the next level by the teaching they get. Instructions should be brief, using a combination of words and actions; preoperational pupils should be given physical practice with facts and skills; they should be encouraged to manipulate objects that can change shape while maintaining a constant mass. According to Huitt (1997), in order to teach preoperational pupils, teachers need to use concrete properties and visual aids to illustrate lessons; they should also use concrete properties and visual aids to illustrate lessons. The suggestions made above should be continued for those who are working with concrete operations. However, for children who are working at higher levels, teachers should include activities that require students to deal with more than two variables at the same time. Additionally, teachers should give students opportunities to classify and group objects and ideas on increasingly complex levels. Finally, teachers should present students with problems that must be solved using logical and analytical thinking. If someone is just starting out with formal operations, you should offer them the chance to investigate a wide variety of hypothetical topics and constantly encourage them to describe the process by which they solve difficulties.

4.6 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

The study of language is an important part of the education process. It is used in the process of retaining knowledge in the memory, communicating between learners and the instructor as well as among learners, and also in showing that learning has taken place in the form of writing, reading, and speaking. In a nutshell, the importance of language cannot be overstated in the context of the educational process. When working with pupils, it is necessary to take into consideration the linguistic shifts that occur during the course of an individual's growth. A child's growth in linguistic capacity enables him or her to engage in conversation with the individuals in his or her environment.

What does it mean to speak a language? Communication via words is just one aspect of language. There are three primary features that are shared by all languages; they are semantic, displacement, and productivity. To say that a language is productive is to imply that it has a limited vocabulary but can make an infinite combination of words to present ideas. To say that a language is semantic is to say that the words represent an object or event. Displacement is to say that the words represent objects that are not present in space and time.

When learning a language, it is necessary to ultimately conform to certain norms, such as the ones listed below: • Phonology is the study of how sounds are combined to form words. It decides how sounds are strung together in a manner that results in a sequence that conveys a certain meaning.

• Syntax refers to the manner in which words are joined to form sentences that have meaning. When you hear the phrase "the lion ate the zebra," you immediately get a sense of who devoured whom or who was consumed by whom. If these words were rearranged in this sentence, it would have a completely new meaning, or it would have no meaning at all. Have you ever heard the story of the zebra who ate the lion?

• The study of pragmatics entails using language in a manner that is socially acceptable. This means being able to engage in a discussion by using appropriate language that takes into account the social setting that is currently in place.

Language development phases

The acquisition of listening and speaking skills are necessary components in the development of language. Let's talk briefly about how the environment and language influence a child's development before we go on to the phases. Noam Chomsky stated in 1957 that humans are biologically programmed to learn language because all children develop in more or less the same rate and the sequence or steps involved are the same even though they live in different environments. Chomsky based this theory on the observation that children develop at the same rate regardless of where they live in the world. He is of the opinion that language is very complicated and that children do not only imitate what they hear from their parents. It is difficult, if not impossible, to teach children how to talk; youngsters reach a certain period of development at which they begin to communicate. Does this imply that the child's surroundings has no effect on the development of their language? The correct response is unquestionably not. To begin, the language that one eventually acquires is that of one's primary caregivers (internalizing speech they hear). The child's speech patterns are a direct reflection of the language patterns of the individuals in their environment. At the age of three, children who have been living in situations of extreme poverty have a vocabulary that is much less developed than children from homes with a median income (Farkas, 2001). Therefore, the development of language is a product of heredity, and the environment has a significant impact on the degree to which children's language varies in terms of its quality.

Bronfenbrenner's ecological theory is shown in figure 4.7.1 here. The Ecological Theory Developed by Bronfenbrenner

The ecological theory developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) is predicated on the societal influences that have an impact on the way in which children progress through life. Bronfenbrenner admits the presence of five environmental systems in order to explain the child's interrelationship with near individuals as well as that with the wider social environment. Research on people and the circumstances in which they live is guided by this hypothesis. We may raise the question, "Why do kids in a given place fare so poorly on the National Examinations?" as a starting point for our investigation.

The following are the many systems that he suggested:

I A child's immediate surroundings and the social settings in which he or she spends the majority of his or her time are both examples of microsystems. These environments include for the most majority of children of their family, surrounding community, schools, and daycare centers. The youngster will have numerous opportunities for social engagement inside this framework. At home, the student is affected by his or her parents and siblings. At school, the student is influenced by his or her instructors and other classmates. In the neighborhood, the student is influenced by his or her contemporaries. (In the latter portion of this lecture, we will talk about the different parenting techniques and the effect of peers.) Not only does the environment have an effect on the kid, but the child also contributes to the formation of that environment by their own actions. Because an individual's biology is believed to be a component of the Microsystems, this theory has been renamed in recent years as the "Bio-Ecological Systems Theory."

(ii) The term "Mesosystem" refers to the connection that exists between the many microsystems. The children draw parallels between the things that happen at school and in their personal lives, and these connections, to a certain extent, have an impact on their academic performance. If the teachers at the school and the family place a high value on education, then we can anticipate that the student will have a successful academic career. On the other hand, if neither the teachers nor the family places a high value on education, then we anticipate that the student will not have a successful academic career. A youngster may bring experiences that they had at church or mosque to school or home, or vice versa.

(iii) The Exosystem is based on the learner's experience of situations in which he or she is not actively engaged but which still has some impact on the student. There is no obvious connection between the job done by the student and that of the parent. However, the job that the parent does may have an impact on the experiences that the kid has, for example, if the parent uses their earnings to pay for tuition and other school supplies. For instance, there is no clear correlation between the amount of money paid to instructors and the amount of academic progress children make. There was a period of time in Tanzania during which authorities did not pay teachers in a timely manner. Some of the educators were discouraged, while others spent their days trying to track down their pay; as a result, the pupils' educational experience was negatively impacted. If a school receives donations of textbooks, this may result in the acquisition of more learning resources and, as a consequence, improved academic performance among the student body. Although the student is not directly engaged in each scenario, he or she may be indirectly impacted by the choices and behaviors of those involved.

(iv) The term "macrosystem" refers to the overarching cultural practices of a civilization. Gender roles, the socioeconomic structure, the lives of instructors and students, attitudes, philosophies, sports, ethnicity, values, and traditions are all elements that are included in culture. In certain cultures, education for women is not prioritized, whereas in others it is actively promoted, and successful academic performance among females is expected. It is possible that children from low-income homes, who do not know when their next meal will be, are impacted by this situation; thus, we will not be shocked if they are unable to focus on their education.

(v) The student's current social and historical circumstances make up their chronosystem. Do you know that 15 years ago there were very few computers in Tanzania and now many students in Tanzania have access to computers? Do you know that 15 years ago there were very few computers in Tanzania? One might say the same thing about television. In addition, the distance that many kids in secondary schools are required to travel each day to go to school is much shorter these days. Before the year 1980, no one had any idea what HIV or AIDS were. All of these changes have an effect on the educational opportunities available to children.

According to Chronosystem, compare and contrast the living circumstances of Tanzanian pupils attending International secondary schools with those attending Ward secondary schools.

The ecological theory developed by Bronfenbrenner has shown to us that the social environments in which students are immersed have a significant impact on the growth of those pupils. When deciding how to increase students' performance or if we want to improve students' performance, it informs us that we need look at diverse social circumstances. For instance, while evaluating the performance of students, we cannot only depend on the settings of the classroom or the school; rather, we need to take into account and incorporate the people who are relevant to the kids. What is the use of a teacher assigning homework if the parents do not place importance on it, or if at home the parents refuse to provide the kid the opportunity to do their homework?

4.7.2 Erikson's phases of development

The psychosocial development hypothesis developed by Erik H. Erikson (1902-1994) outlines eight distinct phases that people go through as they establish their personalities (Erikson, 1950). This idea explains the impact that a person's social surroundings have on their emotional development. At each step, a person must work through problems and disagreements in order to progress to the next level. A healthy personality will develop from the resolution of these internal and external conflicts in a favorable manner. Nevertheless, if these disagreements are not handled in a satisfactory manner, they generate a crisis that has the potential to result in maladjustment behaviors in the future. This hypothesis contributes to the recognition of the possibility that problems that surface later in life may have their origins in earlier stages of development. In addition to this, it may be used to direct instructors toward the most effective methods of bringing up pupils so that they have a good emotional and mental wellness.

The phases that make up a person's psychological development

There are eight phases; however, we are only going to concentrate on the first four stages since they are the stages that correlate to the ages of kids in the majority of schools.

I Trust against Mistrust (Infants, birth to one year)

This is the initial stage, and the emphasis here is on the manner in which the fundamental requirements are satisfied by the parents. During the first year of life, all of a child's fundamental requirements, such as food, water, and safety, are satisfied with the assistance of its parents; without this assistance, none would survive. During this time, attachment—that is, the psychological link that exists between a kid and his or her parents—is formed (especially mother). The process by which children actively respond to the social environment is referred to as reciprocal contacts, and it is characterized by the fact that children react in a certain way. When you grin at them, they will typically smile back at you, and if you are furious with them, they will reply in like. If parents consistently provide their kid with an atmosphere that is warm, loving, and safe, the youngster will develop a feeling of security and also learn to trust the world around them. The child will develop a deep-seated mistrust of the outside world and the belief that it is unreliable, undependable, and unpredictable in addition to being a hostile environment if the parents fail to meet the child's needs, abuse the child, or ignore their needs if the parents fail to meet the child's needs. (Extracted from Wikipedia in the year 2010).

(ii) The Battle Between Autonomy and Shame and Doubt (Toddlers, 2 to 3years)

Children reach this developmental milestone when they have gained the muscle coordination and movement necessary to be able to physically investigate their environment. In many societies, children are expected to acquire self-control via the process of learning how to use the toilet. The child will develop a sense of autonomy and the confidence that he or she can handle many things on their own if the parents encourage and create a safe environment for exploring the environment, and if the parents encourage self-sufficient behaviors in such things as dressing, eating, and washing themselves, the child will develop these skills. On the other hand, if a child's parents are very restrictive (excessive control) or ridicule the child when the child is attempting to exercise self-control, the child will develop a feeling of being ashamed of himself or herself and will doubt his or her ability to control himself or herself and to solve problems. At this point in development, the most important question for the kid to consider is whether or not he or she is capable of doing things for himself or herself, or whether or not they must constantly depend on others.

(iii) Initiative versus Guilt (Preschool, 4 to 6 years)

A great deal of information about the outside world is gained by the kid at this time. They are more inquisitive, have learned basic fundamentals about the world, are able to count, and have made significant progress in their linguistic abilities. They are open to trying new things and may occasionally engage in risky behavior in the process. Therefore, they desire to organize, start, and participate in purposeful acts that, if carried out well, will result in the happiness of the kid. A feeling of initiative may be fostered in a youngster by providing opportunities for the child to take the lead in completing tasks. If the kid is unable to do what is expected of them, they may experience feelings of failure and shame, both of which may contribute to the development of behaviors that are not acceptable. The primary emphasis is placed on determining whether or not they are morally commendable in light of the results of their acts. The youngster will experience either good or bad feelings depending on how they resolve this dispute.

(iv) Superiority of Industry above Inferiority (Childhood, 7 to 12 years)

The majority of youngsters who are now at this stage are students in primary or elementary school. They will receive a great deal of new experiences as a result of attending the new school, such as engaging with a greater number of students and instructors who have a variety of backgrounds. According to Allen and Marotz (2003), children who have reached this stage have a logical understanding of the concepts of time and space; they also gain a better understanding of the relationship between cause and effect; they are eager to learn and accomplish complex skills such as mastering knowledge and engaging in intellectual skills; and they have developed an understanding of the relationship between cause and effect. Because students spend a significant amount of time at school, the atmosphere and activities there are increasingly being utilized as evidence of students' level of knowledge and skill. If they are successful, they have a feeling of being hardworking, but if they are unsuccessful on a regular basis, they acquire a sense of being beneath them. A youngster at this age is curious about whether or not they will be successful in life and whether or not they have any value.

(v) Confusion over one's identity and one's roles (Between the ages of 13 and 19 years old)

Many of the pupils at the secondary level are now at this stage. They also acquire a sense of their own sexual identity and become much more self-conscious about how they seem to others. This stage marks the passage from infancy into adulthood and is characterized by a time of change. When a student is trying to determine his or her duties in the future as an adult in regard to the various roles and possibilities that are accessible, the student may first experience perplexity. At this point in their development, kids are working to determine both who they are (their identity) and where they want to go in the future (pondering roles). They will acquire a sense of self-identity if they are able to settle this struggle. If they do not, then kids are likely to continue to have a muddled understanding of who they are and what they will do as adults.

Are you in agreement or disagreement with Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, taking into account certain features of your personality? Give an account of the viewpoint you hold.

Following are some of the instructional methods that Santrock (2004) suggests using in light of Eriksson's theory:

• Fostering an entrepreneurial spirit in young children Students should be given a significant amount of latitude in their educational programming to investigate the world around them and to choose some of the activities in which they participate.

Encourage pupils in elementary schools to pursue careers in industry. The instructor should foster an environment that encourages students to learn on their own via the use of intrinsic motivation in order to make the most of the students' potential and drive to learn. The pupils need to believe that they are capable of completing the assignments given to them.

Encourage the development of a sense of self throughout the teenage years. The fact that teenagers have to deal with a variety of problems on various fronts should not be hidden from teachers. In this stage, students should be encouraged to think freely and given the opportunity to examine the many options that are accessible to them. Additionally, the educator has to be aware of the availability of counseling services that may assist students in making decisions on their future careers.

4.8 PARENTING STYLES AND PEERS

Both Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory and Erikson's Psychosocial Development Theory emphasize how important it is for parents and other significant others to have an impact on their children's personality development. Bronfenbrenner's theory is called the Ecological Theory. Erikson's theory is called the Psychosocial Development Theory It is important to keep in mind that your parents, siblings, and classmates are all components of the microsystem.

The majority of a child's formative years are spent in the company of their family, namely their parents and siblings. There is a vast range of lived experiences within families. Some of the factors that contribute to variety include parenting styles; below are descriptions of four of the more common ones (Baumrind, 1971). A parenting style is a psychology term that refers to the approaches that parents use while they are raising their children. Bringing up children requires a significant investment of both time and effort on the parent's part. The styles that are utilized change throughout time, which might have an effect on the development of a child's personality.

I Parenting based on a hierarchy of authority

The parents of the children in this model are quite directive with their instructions. However, parents tend to be less receptive to their children's needs and have high expectations about conformity and obedience to the regulations they impose. They are authoritarian and resort to the use of punishment (without first attempting to discuss the issue with the kid) in order to coerce the youngsters living in the family to obey the rules and guidelines. Children who grow up in households like this often have lower levels of social competence because they are not allowed to use their freedom of choice (ERIC Digests, Retrieved 2010).

(ii) Parenting based on a position of authority

This refers to parents who give their children the freedom to make their own decisions while yet placing some restrictions on those decisions. They teach the youngsters the rules and offer direction without being oppressive to them. Even when they choose to discipline their child, the parents provide support and encourage open conversation as a means of arriving at appropriate resolutions (Santrock, 2007). Children that are brought up in such an atmosphere often have healthy levels of self-esteem, are self-sufficient, are socially competent, are joyful, and are successful (Van Wagner, 2010).

(iii) Neglectful parenting

These are parents that do not participate in their children's life, and as a result, their children suffer from neglect. They have absolutely no interest in knowing where their children are or what they are up to. They pay little attention to the youngsters and instead concentrate entirely on their own concerns. Children who are brought up by such parents often display the same habits as those of their negligent parents, lack the ability to self-regulate and the drive to succeed, and are intellectually less capable than their contemporaries (Van Wagner, 2010).

(iv) Indulgent parenting

These are the kind of parents who are very active in their children's life by allowing them an excessive amount of freedom, i.e. very little limits, if any at all. They cater to the children's every need and whim, which includes letting them do everything they want to do and letting them do whatever they want to do. In a nutshell, the parents want to win the approval of their offspring at all times. Children who grow up in homes like these have a harder time learning to exercise self-control over their actions since they are not taught how to do so when they are young (Santrock, 2007).

Locate a number of families in your neighborhood and investigate the different approaches to parenting that are taken by each of them. How about beginning with your very own family members?

Children have a strong need to socialize with other kids their age. Children of the same age who live in the same community might be considered peers. Even within the confines of the playground, children of similar ages interact and play together. They are very important contributors to the child's psychological and social development. They connect with one another in the community and at school via play and other activities in the classroom, and as a result, they share their perspectives and passions. Although the majority of their circumstances are the same, each of them has unique qualities and histories that shape their relationships and the ways in which they engage with one another. Both a source of knowledge and a yardstick for drawing comparisons among themselves, peers provide both of these functions.

A healthy or unhealthy growth might result from a person's interaction with their peers. A youngster is put in a position where they are expected to adhere to the standards of their peer group in order to be accepted by their peers, and they live in constant dread of being rejected by their friends. A youngster may be motivated to participate in healthy behaviors by the encouragement of positive peer pressure, while participating in harmful behaviors may be motivated by the encouragement of negative social pressure. Some pupils are exposed to the use of illegal substances (Jenkins, 1996) or to behaviors that are considered to be undesirable, such as bullying other students who are weaker or younger children. On the other hand, according to Johnson (2000), an individual's performance in school might benefit from the influence of their peers if they participate in study groups or are encouraged when confronted with difficulties. I believe you have friends that prevent other friends from making a terrible situation even worse, and I also believe you have friends who make a bad situation even worse.

Every individual in a human group, regardless of the group's composition, is assigned a status by the other members. The way a youngster is treated by his or her contemporaries is an indication of that child's status. There are four distinct categories of status among peers:

• Children that are popular have a high level of support from their classmates and are often chosen for leadership roles.

• Children that are neglected are well loved by their classmates, but it is rare that their peers would designate them for leadership roles.

• Children who are excluded are looked down upon by their classmates, and they are not likely to be considered for leadership roles.

• Controversial youngsters are likely to be perceived as both a best friend and as someone who is loathed by their peers at the same time.

Think back on the many types of friendship groups you belonged to when you were younger. Which status did you have within each organization that you participated in? Kindly be honest with me!

According to Santrock (2004), instructors should use the following tactics in order to develop their students' social skills: • Assist kids who are bullied in learning to listen to their peers and hear what they have to say rather than attempting to control them.

• You should assist youngsters who have been neglected in finding good strategies to gain the attention of others and maintaining that attention.

• Teach youngsters who are lacking in social skills the several ways in which they may enhance their abilities in this area.

Read some books about proper ways to interact with classmates, have some conversations with other students, and come up with some fun and supportive activities and games.

According to an unnamed source (obtained in 2010), parents (and I believe this applies to teachers as well) may develop healthy and good connections among peers and show support by doing the following: • Having a positive relationship with your children's or students' and their classmates.

• Demonstrating a genuine interest in the extracurricular activities that your children or pupils participate in with their peers. This will provide the instructor the opportunity to get familiar with your children or classmates, as well as any inappropriate behavior that may arise.

• Stimulating self-directed thinking and expression amongst one's contemporaries

4.9 DEVELOPMENT OF SELF

Self is the information that an individual has about him or herself. Put your eyes out of the way and envision yourself in your mind's eye. That is an element of the notion of oneself. According to W. Purkey (1988, retrieved in 2010), the term "self-concept" denotes the whole of a complex, well-organized, and ever-changing system of acquired ideas, attitudes, and views that an individual considers to be true in regard to his or her own personal life. Therefore, to begin, a self-concept is a cognitive construct that is connected to what an individual believes about themselves and the impressions that are created about them. The use of all five senses is what led to the acquisition of this information.

Self-concept is a multi-dimensional notion since it encompasses a variety of aspects, including an individual's impression of their own physical appearance, scholastic talents, skills, gender identity and roles, as well as their ethnic and religious identities. A person's height, sex, appearance, and the clothing they wear are all examples of components of their physical perception. A person's academic self-concept is their perception of their degree of success in school and their capacity for learning. It is possible for a person to have a high self-concept in one area of their personality while simultaneously having a bad self-concept in another element of their personality, such as the notion that they are excellent in academics but awful in sports.

The notion of oneself evolves with time. It is something that is not inherent but rather something that is taught; when we are born, we do not know anything about ourselves nor do we have a mental image of ourselves. During the course of the kid's cognitive development, the child learns about itself as an independent entity in its surroundings, and as a result, the child's self-concept evolves. Personal reflections on one's experiences, particularly those with important persons, are the primary agents in the formation of one's self-concept (Purkey, 1988). Around the age of 18 months, children begin to develop a concept of who they are. By the age of six years old, individuals are able to add abstract notions while speaking about themselves, such as being joyful or furious. This is because their cognitive development leads to a deeper understanding of themselves.

The self-concept is largely persistent, meaning that it consists of perceptions that have been maintained for an extended length of time and are resistant to change. If an individual lacks this feature, then their personality will not be consistent; alternatively, they will lack consistency. Even though one's self-concept is difficult to alter, it is possible to grow and develop one's own self-concept throughout the course of one's lifetime (Franken, 1994). The shifts are the outcome of the individual engaging in self-reflection in response to the way in which they interacted with their surroundings.

Individuals are able to conceive about what are known as "potential selves," which are notions of ourselves in the future. A student who is now enrolled in secondary education may see himself or herself in the future as being tall, gorgeous, or lovely, married, and occupying a top position in an organization while also possessing all of the most cutting-edge technology available. Additionally, the potential selves might be representations of things that the individual dreads becoming in the future, such as drug addicts or people who are unsuccessful in life. These alternative selves have an influence on the behavior of the person in the here and now as well as in the future. Franken (1994) is of the opinion that the notion of the self is the foundation for motivated behavior, which in turn leads to the emergence of conceivable behaviors, which in turn creates motivation for behavior.

Self-esteem refers to the component of one's self-concept that deals with evaluations and feelings. It is how a person sees him or herself in relation to others. A person who is confident in themselves and has a good outlook on themselves has high levels of self-esteem. The person who has low self-esteem has a very poor opinion of oneself or herself and thinks very little of themselves. There will be times when your self-esteem is low, and the length of such times may vary. On the other hand, if the phase continues for a significant amount of time, it may result in poor academic performance, despair, and criminal behavior (Harter, 1999). There is a correlation between one's perception of themselves and their academic success (Marsh, 1992; Hamachek, 1994). However, it is still unclear whether or not components of self-concept are produced by academic accomplishment, or whether or not academic achievement causes aspects of self-concept.

Get in touch with a few teenagers on an individual basis and ask them about the perspective they have on prospective selves. Remember to give some thought to the potential versions of yourself!

According to the results of his study, Santrock (2004) offered the following recommendations to educators for assisting kids in increasing their levels of self-esteem:

• Determining the factors that contribute to poor self-esteem as well as the aspects of one's competence that are most significant to the individual

• Provide emotional support and social approbation.

• Help pupils to succeed.

• Develop student's coping skills.

Springs (2008) made the following suggestions about how to improve students' self-concepts via increased academic achievement:

• Increasing motivation through praising and rewarding student achievements on a regular basis. Show an interest in the progress they are making in their studies. The teacher should encourage participation from the student's parents in the process of building student motivation. The significance of creating a healthy belief system in one's offspring should not be lost on parents.

• Assist students in formulating ambitious objectives for their level of motivation, and guide them through the transition from reliance to independence and self-sufficiency. At the beginning of the school year, you should assist them in establishing their academic objectives and the measures they need to take to accomplish those goals.

SUMMARY

During this lecture, we discussed a variety of factors that may have an effect on a child's growth and development, including the function of heredity, the environment, various parenting techniques, and connections with other children. Also discussed are other aspects of development, such as cognitive growth, linguistic growth, physical growth, and psychosocial growth. Lastly, there are tasks that can assist you in better conceptualizing the material that you have been presented with.

EXERCISES

1. Look about your neighborhood for children of varying ages and compare the stages of development that you see in those children to the stages of development that are described by the many theories that are used to explain child development.

2. Elaborate on this summary using your own words, and then go through the lesson to check that your understanding is correct.

REFERENCES

Baumrind, Di (1971).

Patterns of parental control in the present day. Developmental Psychology Monographs, Volume 4 Number 1 Part 2, Pages 1-103

ERIC DIGEST. The part that parents play in their children being socially adept among their peers. Eric Digests. http://www.ericdigests.org/1992-3/parents.htm. Retrieved 2010

The authors of the study are Elliot, Stephen N., Kractochwill, Thomas R., Cook, Joan L., and Travers, John F. (2000). Educational Psychology: The Study of How to Teach and Learn Most Effectively New York, United States of America: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Franken, R. (1994). Human Motivation (3rd Ed.). Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, Pacific Grove, California. Hamachek, D. (1994). The interaction dynamics between self-concept and academic accomplishment, as well as a method for evaluating the self-concept component of the relationship 419-425 in the Journal of Counseling and Development's 73rd issue, Volume 4.

Harter, S. (1999). The process of constructing oneself. Guilford in the state of New York

Hunt, E. (1995). Understanding the Importance of Intelligence in Today's Society The American Scientist. [Reprinted from:

Johnson, Kirk A. (2000). The influence of one's peers on one's academic performance among students attending public elementary schools. Report Number 00-06 from the Center for Data Analysis

Loh, A. (2010). (2010). The significance of acquiring language skills, continuation from part one. Brainy-Child.com is a product of Lion Heart Consulting's educational services division.

His Honor Marsh (1992). An extension of the Marsch and Shavelson model is presented here, focusing on the content-specificity of the relations between academic self-concept and achievement. ERIC NO ED349315

Ormrod, J. E. (1999). Human learning (3rd Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Purkey, W. (1988). An introduction to the notion of self-concept for those working in counseling. Clearinghouse on Counseling and Personnel Services at the ERIC Database, located in Ann Arbor, Michigan (An ERIC/CAPS Digest: ED304630)

Author: Santrock, John W. (2004). Psychological Studies in Education (2nd Edition). New York, United States of America: McGraw-Hill Higher Education

Author: Santrock, John W. (2007). A Current Perspective on Development Across the Life Span (3rdd Edition). New York, United States of America: McGraw-Hill Higher Education

Van Wagner, Kendra (2010). The Four Different Styles of Parenting There are four different styles of parenting. About.com Guide. Accessed in the year 2010.

LECTURE FIVE

TEACHING METHODS AND LEARNING THEORIES

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Learning has not been defined at this point in time by us. Since we were very young, each one of us has been engaged in some kind of educational pursuit. Therefore, despite the fact that we have some experience with learning, it is still impossible to characterize the notion since the process itself is not observable. In most cases, what you witness is a pupil learning, rather than the actual process of learning itself. suspect is the correct term. Even inside ourselves, we are unable to see or feel the learning process that is going place. It is not at all like ingesting or feeling the warmth of the environment! A number of psychologists have offered a variety of ideas and points of view on learning, which have subsequently had repercussions for the instructional design tactics that are used. These theories provide us a framework to define the process of learning as well as advice on how to approach the act of teaching (Wikipedia, retrieved Feb. 2010).

LECTURE OBJECTIVES

You should be able to do the following by the time this lesson is over: I Describe Behavioral Theories of Learning (ii) Explain Piaget's Theory (iii) Describe Vygotsky (iv) Compare and contrast the various Theories of Intelligence

5.2 WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY A THEORY?

According to Dorin, Demmin, and Gabel (1990), theories provide broad observations on a phenomena that have been made throughout the course of time; yet, the knowledge that is currently available has not yet been proven beyond all reasonable doubt. They are statements that have been derived through logical reasoning and are used to describe a construct or process that is difficult to quantify. In order for a theory to be acknowledged, there must be a set of general presumptions regarding the existence of a phenomenon. These presumptions must state that the theory in question possesses the most plausible explanations for the phenomenon in question, and that the appropriate people are actively working to determine whether or not the theory is accurate. The presence of several theories inside a single construct indicates that various individuals approach the corresponding construct from a variety of different angles.

Some theories dominate and have an influence on the field of psychology as a whole, including Education Psychology, for a certain amount of time, but then they lose their dominance to new ideas that are perceived as being more credible. This phenomenon occurs throughout the area of psychology. Therefore, when new information is gained on these learning theories, those ideas will either be updated or, in really exceptional circumstances, completely abandoned. During the course of this lecture, we will concentrate on only a few different theories.

TAKE NOTE

If you discover different ideas or points of view characterizing the learning process, please don't point the finger at me. In addition, you should not be shocked if, by the time you finish reading this lecture, some of the ideas discussed here may no longer hold the position of preeminence because of the emergence of new theories. Please make sure you are familiar with all of them and use each one responsibly.

5.3 BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES

Several psychologists are involved with the behavioral techniques; among them are Edward Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, Tolman and B. F. Skinner. The fundamental emphasis of behaviourism is that behaviour is taught via conditioning. Behaviorists think that learning is conveyed by change in overt behavior; the environment impacts behavior; and that the establishment of a link of items or experiences relies on the time gap between them.

TAKE NOTE

Conditioning simply implies learning exhibited by observable actions/responses.

Behavioral methods are two kinds of the basic forms of associative learning i.e. learning that happens as consequence of an organism connecting two or more elements. Our experiences teach us that there are objects or occurrences that occur in a definite sequence. Examples include salivating when we see or receive scent of food we enjoy or studying hard leads to a good grade in an exam, lowering of the sun signifies time for bed is near. These connections of events or things make our reality predicable as well as articulating who/what/how/when parts of behaviours. I suppose without these linkages our world would be in a chaotic mess.

Behaviorism defines learning as permanent changes of behaviour as a result of experience. The definition implies there must be a change in observable behaviour to definitely prove that learning has taken place. Lack of change in behaviour implies learning has not occurred. You know when you spell a word correctly then you have learned the spelling of that word. On the other hand if you fail to spell that word correctly it means that learning has not taken place. Also the definition indicates that in learning the changes in behaviour are a result of interacting with the environment i.e. behaviour changes are based by forming association of items. Behaviour changes resulting from fatigue, physical development (maturation) or sickness cannot be related to learning. So, not all behavioural changes are caused by learning.

Forms of associative learning to be discussed here are classical conditioning and instrumental conditioning. However it is important to have a glance at Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) who proposed a theory termed response association theory, also expressed as S→R i.e. the connection between stimulus and response. The theory states that when an organism detects a certain stimulus it gives a specific response based on previous encounters.

This approach of learning has three laws:

• Law of exercise. It states that the connection between a stimulus and response is strengthened depending on how frequently they (stimulus and response) are used together. It implies that if one is continually exercising (read practicing or repeating) the chances of response following the stimulus are high; however lack of exercise decreases the chance of responding when a stimulus appears.

• Law of effect. This one states that the strengthening or weakening of the connection between stimulus and response are the results of the consequences of the response. A response that is followed by a reward or positive satisfaction increases the connection between the stimulus and response, on the other hand if the response is followed by punishment or something aversive the connection between stimulus and response is undermined. Normally we respond to conditions that bring satisfaction and ignore those conditions that bring pain.

• Law of readiness. It states that the basis of individual’s response depends on the extent of his/her preparedness to act. When someone is ready to perform an acts to do so is satisfying. When someone is ready to perform an act, not to do so is annoying. When someone is not ready to perform an act and s/he is forced to do so, it is annoying. Interference with goal directed behavior causes frustration. Also, causing someone to do something s/he does not want to do is also frustrating. If a student wants to learn and s/he gets the chance to learn s/he will get some satisfaction in the act of learning. Preventing him/her from learning will lead to frustration. If a student does not want to learn and the teacher does not appear in the class it is satisfying, and if on the contrary the teacher appears and the student is forced to engage in learning s/he will get annoyed.

Based on your own experiences identify responses that you give as examples of the above laws.

5.3.1 Classical conditioning

Classical learning is also known as Pavlovian conditioning. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), a Russian psychologist, was the first person to describe this type of learning based on a number of experimental studies he conducted on dogs. In these experiments he paired a sound of metronome (bell) with presentation of food powder. The sound was presented just before supplying or providing food powder to the dog’s tongue. After repeating this sequence a number of times he observed that the dog salivated when the sound of metronome presented alone in the absence of food powder. The dog had established an association between sound of metronome and food provision. That is, learning (conditioned) to salivate on just hearing the sound of metronome. In this case learning had taken place. The dogs did not salivate on hearing the metronome before the experiment.

TAKE NOTE

This theory is called “Classical” conditioning because of its significance in psychology.

Pavlov developed terminologies specific to the components of these observations, namely:\s• Unconditioned stimulus (US)\sA stimulus in the environment that biologically makes an organism to give a specific response. In the above experiments the sight of food naturally leads an organism (including us humans) to salivate. US is a natural stimulus that is not a result of learning.

• Conditional stimulus (CS) (CS)

This is a neutral stimulus that naturally does not produce a response but after being paired several times with the US produces a response. The metronome was a neutral stimulus at the beginning that did not make the dogs to salivate upon hearing it. However the sound eventually, after being paired with food powder several times, could alone make the dog to salivate. So, CS is a neutral stimulus that after conditioning (learning) makes an organism to make a response. Some of us can just salivate when someone mentions (CS) food we learned to like.

• Unconditional response (UCR) (UCR)

This is an unlearned response produced by UCS. The dog naturally salivated when food powder was placed on the tongue. We normally salivate when we taste something delicious. UCR can be counted as reflex action.

• Conditional response (CR) (CR)

This is a response that is elicited by CS alone. Before pairing CS and UCS there was no response, but after pairing an organism makes a response on CS in the absence of UCS. So, UCR and CR are same responses (in the Pavlov’s experiment salivating), the difference is that UCR is produced by UCS while CR is produced by CS.

Based on your own experiences, identify 5 UCS; 5 CS and 5 CR/UCR that you know. Remember unconditional implies natural/unlearned and conditional implies learned/acquired.

Characteristics of classical conditioning

For conditioning to occur during the pairing the CS must be several times applied just before the UCS. It is very difficult (next to impossible) for conditioning to occur if the CS is applied before UCS. Also if the interval between the CS and UCS is long the organism cannot make the connection between CS and UCR.

Sequencing classical conditioning based on Pavlov’s experiment:

1. UCS ―――――――→ UCR\sFood Powder Salivating

2. NS (Neutral ) ―――――――→

No Response\sMetronome Not Salivating

3. NS + UCS ―――――――→

UCR\s Metronome+ Food Powder Salivating this has to be repeated several times.

4. CS

―――――――→

CR\s Metronome Salivating

The processes outlined above may be used as an illustration of the sequence that lead to conditioning if they are based on real-life instances of classical conditioning.

In addition, based on the tests, Pavlov came to the following conclusions on classical conditioning:

• Extinction: if one quits pairing the CS and UCS, the CR will stop responding to CS. This can only happen if both components are removed. If the bell was shown on its own to the dogs multiple times without any food powder being placed on their tongues, the dogs ceased drooling and salivating.

• Stimulus generalization. It is possible for CR to take place in the presence of stimuli that are analogous to the UCS. When the dogs heard noises that were comparable to the metronome, they started to salivate.

• Stimulus discrimination: an organism may learn to identify the difference between the CS and other stimuli that are identical to the CS, which means that it can learn to provide CR only to one particular CS. This takes place as a result of the realization that there is just one particular neutral stimulus that is followed by reward. The canines were able to train themselves to react to the metronome but not to other noises that were comparable.

• Spontaneous recovery (relearning): the dormant CR may emerge at a later time if the CS is once again linked with the UCS. The initial amount of time required to create the conditioning is much longer than the amount of time needed to establish the link following spontaneous recovery. Also, following spontaneous recovery, it takes less time to extinguish CR if the CS is offered on its own without the presence of UCS. This is because the UCS dilutes the CS.

• Higher-Order Conditioning: Once an organism has learnt to correlate a CS with a UCS, Higher-Order Conditioning allows for the presentation of an additional neutral stimulus at the same time as the CS. Eventually, the new stimulus becomes the CS, which means it is able to elicit a CR response even when the previous CS is not present. Pavlov combined the clacking of a metronome with a bright flash of light. Later on, he saw that the dog began to drool whenever a bright flash of light was present, even when the food powder and the sound of a metronome were absent.

Despite the fact that Pavlov conducted his experiments on dogs, it is a fact that classical training may explain some aspects of human behavior. There are a number of items that, depending on the presence of particular cue words (CS), we are conditioned to approach or avoid (Domjan, 2003). Some ads, particularly those selling delicacies and fragrances, elicit positive reactions from us. These are the kinds of commercials that we like. One of the most notorious examples of classical conditioning was performed in 1920 by Watson and Raynor, in which they taught a young boy called Albert to be afraid of white rats. Little Albert did not have any concerns about the rat prior to the trial. During the course of the experiment, a white rat was exposed to a very loud sound (threatening to Albert). After numerous unsuccessful pairings, Albert became so terrified of the white rat that he wept whenever he saw it. Even after 30 days had passed since the experiment was terminated, Albert still screamed anytime he saw a rat, and his dread had spread to other objects that were coated in fur.

TAKE NOTE

Experiments on individuals, like the one that was done on impoverished Albert, have negative impacts on the person. As a result, they cannot be tolerated and are unethical.

The experiment described above suggests that children in school may develop feelings of either fear or love for neutral items or events that occur in the classroom or the school. The manner in which we as educators react to the responses or behaviors of our pupils has the potential to unwittingly instill fear, which has the potential to adversely impair learning processes and, as a result, academic achievement. If a teacher responds to student questions and comments with excessive hostility on a regular basis, the student may develop an irrational fear of the instructor and/or the content being taught. Students' test anxiety (fear of exams and examinations) may also be explained by another factor known as conditioning. It's possible that you know children who skip school entirely because of dread of doing poorly on tests or who skip specific courses because they're afraid of a particular instructor.

Through the use of the extinction process, children may learn to overcome their fears of the same things that first caused them to develop those fears. Keep in mind that extinction is ceasing to respond in any way to CS. It is possible to overcome one's fear of instructors and other things while attending school. The children will learn a new way to have a feeling of security when they are with the instructor or when they are studying the topic if the teacher refrains from being harsh to the replies of the pupils and instead adopts a more positive attitude. It is also essential to keep in mind that pupils will heal on their own if the instructor continues to respond the same way he or she has in the past to problems brought up by students.

TAKE NOTE

The reactions that are most often linked with classical conditioning are those that are connected to reflex actions. Classical conditioning is most useful for understanding the feelings that are associated with neutral items or occurrences.

5.3.2 Operant conditioning (short form: (Instrument conditioning)

B.F. Skinner is credited with the development of the method of operant conditioning (1904 -1990). He proposed that psychology need to concentrate on observable behavior that can be quantified (Good and Brophy, 1990), and it ought to neglect the processes that are going on in the mind, also known as mental processes. In Pavlov's experiment, the dog had to wait for someone to show it either the UCS or the CS before it would respond to the stimulus. In operant conditioning, also known as instrumental conditioning, the organism 'operates' on the environment depending on the consequences of its actions; that is, it consciously initiates and operates in a chain of responses. This kind of conditioning is performed by the organism. The person as well as the consequences play important roles in shaping his or her behavior.

In order to illustrate his idea, Skinner constructed a unique box that came to be known as the "Skinner Box" to observe the behaviors of various animals, most of which were rats. (I strongly recommend that you learn about these trials in other sources.) On the basis of these trials, Skinner identified the fundamental components of operant conditioning that are as follows:

The following chart provides an illustration of the order in which operant conditioning takes place:

Stimulus ―――――――→ Response ――――――→ Reinforcement\s(Teacher asking a question) (Teacher asking a question) student putting out his or her hand student being called on to respond

When it is appropriate to offer a reaction, a stimulus will signal this. In the example that was just shown, the students respond to a question posed by the instructor by raising their hands. They respond by putting their hands up in the air, hoping to be chosen to answer the question. It seems like reinforcement is going to be the solution. The oncoming bus serves as a trigger, and our subsequent reaction of waving our hands causes the bus to halt, at which point we board (reinforcement). An indication of where, when, and how to deliver a response that will be rewarded is provided by a stimulus. Therefore, a reaction that is delivered before the stimulus does not qualify for reinforcement, and in order for reinforcement to be effective, it must be received after a response has been given rather than before a response has been given.

It is common practice to repeat behaviors that result in favorable outcomes, while avoiding actions likely to produce unfavorable outcomes. Keep in mind that avoiding or repeating something is also a reaction. A pleasant or rewarding outcome that follows a reaction and, as a result, makes it probable that the response will be repeated in the future when the same conditions are present is an example of positive reinforcement. When a student is doing well in a class, they will always study harder for that class. A consequence that causes an individual to flee or avoid a difficult circumstance is an example of negative reinforcement. Because they make the uncomfortable situations disappear, these reactions are likely to be used again. When someone has headaches in the future, they are likely to once again use medicines designed to alleviate or prevent headaches.

TAKE NOTE Any result, whether good or negative, that enhances the likelihood of a response being repeated in the future is referred to as reinforcement and may be characterized either positively or negatively.

Create a list of ten positive reinforcements and ten positive reinforcements that instructors may use on kids in the classroom and make those lists accessible to them.

Responses that are not reinforced over time gradually die out and are no longer available. The term "extinction" refers to the process by which an organism stops responding to a stimulus once it has learned that the response will not be rewarded. When a student is certain that the instructor will not choose them to answer questions, they will cease raising their hand to the teacher. As educators, we need to avoid offering negative reinforcement to the inappropriate actions of our kids if we want to see these habits become extinct.

In the same way as it does in classical conditioning, stimulus generalization and discrimination both take place in the process of operant conditioning. Sometimes, when we are prompted by a stimulus, we respond in a manner that is analogous to the reaction that often results in reward. The experience of waving to a bus in the hope that it would pull over, only to find out after it has already gone that it was a private bus and not a public one (stimulus generalization). After some time, we are able to tell the difference between public buses and private buses. Since of this, when we see a private bus, we do not wave; but, when we see a public bus (this is called stimulus discrimination), we wave because we are aware that our reaction will be reinforced.

To form a connection between stimuli, response, and reward, also known as to establish new behavior via a process known as behavioural shaping, in certain instances it takes time and through the process of trial and error. In other words, it takes time. Reinforcement is given to responses that lead to the final necessary response, while other responses are ignored, as part of the process of behavioral shaping. This continues until the person learns the relationship between the stimulus and the intended response. When teaching a kid how to write, you should only provide positive reinforcement (in the form of appropriate replies) for the stages that lead to the child gripping the pen properly and writing letters in the right shape. It is necessary for the youngster to achieve mastery of each stage (in this case, the replies) before moving on to the next sequence. It is the responsibility of the educator or parent to provide positive reinforcement for replies that are suitable in each phase.

TAKE NOTE

The first step in the process of behavioral shaping is called stimulus generalization, which may also be thought of as trial and error. The next step is stimulus discrimination, which is how the final response is evoked.

Reinforcers at both the primary and secondary levels

The individual's likelihood of engaging in a certain behavior in the future is increased by the presence of reinforcers, which might take the form of tangible items, experiences, or activities. The extent to which an item may act as a reinforcer is proportional to the person or organism that is being reinforced. Money is a powerful motivator for people, yet it has no value whatsoever to animals, even young children and dogs. A person who is experiencing headaches may benefit from taking aspirin, but a person who is experiencing hunger cannot. As a teacher, it is your responsibility to determine which activities or materials serve as effective reinforcers for students, and in certain cases, for a particular student.

Primary and secondary reinforcers are the two categories that may be found in the field of behavioral science. The natural objects that satisfy our fundamental need, such as food, water, and shelter, are examples of primary reinforcers. Secondary reinforcers are other items that are associated with main reinforcers and ultimately obtain their own reinforcing abilities. They are called secondary reinforcers because they eventually get their own reinforcing powers. Secondary reinforcers include things like monetary rewards. A significant number of the reinforcers used in educational settings are secondary reinforcers. The term "generalized reinforcer" refers to a secondary reinforcer that has advanced to the point where it has the characteristics of a main reinforcer. When we labor only for the sake of accumulating wealth, rather than for any other reason, money functions as a generalized reinforcer.

TAKE NOTE

When utilized to fulfill our wants, money is a primary reinforcer, but when we work hard to obtain joy from amassing more of it, money becomes a secondary reinforcer.

Plans for retraining and instruction

Because of our personal experiences, we are aware that not all of our answers are instantly rewarded with positive reinforcement. Some reactions get instant reward, whilst others do not receive immediate reinforcement; in these cases, the reinforcement is supplied at a later time. The majority of the time, if we pay cash to the merchant, we are able to get the item that we want. On the other hand, there are occasions when we have to visit many stores before we can discover the required item at the appropriate price. A system that shows which responses receive reinforcement and which will not get reinforcement is referred to as a schedule of reinforcement. Within the framework of continuous reinforcement, each answer is then followed by reinforcement. A head nod of approval is given by the instructor to a student in the classroom whenever that student provides an answer that is right. This plan is not particularly successful in the long term since certain individuals and organisms will eventually cease reacting in order to take advantage of the reinforcements that have been amassed.

When it comes to teaching new behavioral responses, continuous reinforcement is by far the most successful method. When the desired behavioral response has been determined, we may next proceed to partial reinforcement schedules. This means that not all replies will be rewarded with reinforcement; rather, just some of the responses will be rewarded. It is well knowledge that partial reinforcement schedules are far more efficient than continuous reinforcement for maintaining a response that has already been established. There are many different configurations that partial reinforcement schedules might take. In this section, we are going to talk about ratio schedules as well as interval schedules.

The presentation of reinforcement in interval schedules is determined by the passage of time as a factor. Fixed interval schedules provide for reinforcing a response only after a certain period of time has passed since the previous time the answer was rewarded. There is never any variation in the amount of time that passes between reinforcements. When a worker has completed five days of labor for the employer, the employer has the option of providing reinforcement in the form of payment at the conclusion of every fifth day of work. In the context of a classroom, a teacher may administer an exam on the last Monday of the month (I know how much you like taking tests!). When using schedules with different intervals, the length of time that passes in between each instance of reinforcement might vary. The person (or the organism) is aware that they will get reinforcement at some point in the future, but they are unsure of when. The worker may be paid by the employer after five days this time, but the subsequent payment may take place after seven days, and the payment after that may take place after four days. A instructor may choose to provide a test after five days, then again after six days, and then the next one would be administered after three days. It is important to take note that a person is required to make replies within the allotted amount of time in order to get reinforcement. The most significant disadvantage of using a set interval is that some individuals do not respond until right before the moment when it is anticipated that they would get reinforcement.

TAKE NOTE

I really hope that you are not one of those persons who only complete their responsibilities just before they are paid.

The presentation of reinforcement in ratio schedules is determined by the amount of right replies an individual has to make before they may earn reward. One gets rewarded according to a set ratio schedule after they have achieved a certain threshold of right replies from the time of their most recent reinforcement. An employer may choose to provide positive reinforcement to a worker after the worker has produced a certain number of products, such as paying the worker after the worker has baked one hundred loaves of bread. In a traditional school setting, a math instructor will not mark a student's exercise until the student has finished five problems on their own. A variable ratio schedule denotes that an individual receives reinforcement after completing a certain number on average of successful replies. The number of appropriate answers in each of these sets varies. It's possible that the first set won't come until after five replies, the second set won't come until after four responses, and the third set won't come until after six responses. A worker may get reinforcement after making 100 loaves, then after baking 200 loaves, and then after baking merely 75 loaves. This sequence may continue until the worker has baked the required number of loaves. A teacher in a classroom setting may mark a student's work after the student has completed 5 sums, the next lesson after completing 3 sums, and the following lesson after completing 7 sums.

The results are different depending on the sort of reinforcement plan that was implemented. When it comes to successfully establishing a new behavior, using a fixed ratio is more effective. (It is important to keep in mind that one sort of fixed schedule reinforcement is continuous reinforcement.) It is also quite vulnerable to the possibility of becoming extinct. The variable ratio schedule is the most effective method for behavior maintenance. Because the person constantly believes that they will be rewarded with reinforcement after delivering another answer, they do not cease giving replies.

Using the five different schedules of reinforcements outlined up above as examples, provide a description of each of the five different schedules by describing five different situations that really occurred.

The fundamental idea of Premark

Even if it may be unfamiliar to you, I have no doubt that you are familiar with this fundamental idea. David Premark elaborated on the meaning of this idea. It is possible for a person to employ behaviors that are more attractive to them as a reinforcer for behaviors that are less pleasant. When compared to less desired acts, desirable ones are those that are performed by a person much more often and for a significantly longer period of time; in other words, desirable actions have high frequency activity. In life, every individual has some activities that they like more and other activities that they enjoy less than others. A great deal of youngsters (and grownups, too) would rather watch television than do their schoolwork (or washing pots). According to Premark's approach, activities like as completing schoolwork or cleaning dishes may be rewarded by watching television as a kind of positive reinforcement. Before turning on the television, the parent must ensure that their kid has finished their schoolwork or washed the dishes. Students in schools are sometimes required to finish their schoolwork before they are permitted to go outside and play. (Do you recall that your mother instructed you to first complete eating your porridge before she would let you go outside to play with other children?)

As a teacher, you should do what you can to determine which behaviors of your students should be rewarded, and then you should construct a hierarchy of reinforcement for those behaviors, in which the most desirable behavior of the student is placed at the top of the list, and the least desirable behavior is placed at the bottom. You may collect the list by either asking the kids to write down what they like doing or by observing them when they are in their free time. It is not possible to employ a behavior that is less desired as a reinforcer for behavior that is more desirable. It is not appropriate to utilize washing pots as a reward for completing school assignments.

Create a list of the classroom activities that the students like the most, as well as a list of those that they enjoy the least. Explain, using the Premark principle as your guide, how you want to make the most of the activities in terms of your educational goals.

In many different sections of this course, we will talk about the contributions that operant conditioning has made to the field of education.

5.3.3 The concept of social learning 5.3.3

Keep in mind that, according to the behavioral approach, learning is mostly driven by the environment in which a person finds themselves, and that there must be a change in behavior. Albert Bandura is credited with the formulation of the social learning theory, which stands in contrast to the behavioral approach. He was of the opinion that the behavioral viewpoint was an overly simple method that failed to take into account all that is involved in the learning process. His idea places an emphasis on the role that other people play in our educational experiences. We educate ourselves through seeing how other people behave and the consequences of their actions. It is sufficient for us to understand that an insect may hurt us and that we should exercise caution around it if we observe another person sobbing as a result of getting stung by a bug. This is something we can understand without having to experience it ourselves. In schools, children are sometimes subjected to a punishment (or a reward) before their peers in order to deter them from engaging in the behavior that resulted in the penalty (maintaining the rewarding behaviour). Imitating other individuals is another way in which we gain knowledge. Observe how young toddlers mimic our behaviors and how this leads to the development of numerous talents since they learn from watching adults. Later on, individuals make use of the abilities they emulated in order to meet the challenges posed by the environment. In addition, we pick up new skills from other people via the process of modeling, which means that the actions of other people act as a guide for us as we acquire new behaviors. In order for the children to be able to write themselves, we expect them to watch as we write. My opinion is that shaping is more difficult than modeling, both for the instructor and the pupils. Learning by symbolic modeling, often known as learning through watching other people on television, reading about people, or listening to tales that include people (isn't this one of the primary roles of literature?).

Learning in the behavioural approach is related with a change in behavior that is maintained over time. Learning by observation suggests that there are occasions when we acquire new knowledge just through observation, without any accompanying shift in behavior.

TAKE NOTE

As a teacher, it is imperative that you ensure you are setting a good example for your children in all facets of their growth. Prepare carefully so that your actions may be easily replicated by the pupils.

According to the social learning theory, the following are the characteristics that contribute to successful modeling:

• Pay Attention: When making observations, the individual has to ensure that they are paying attention to the modeling. A student's level of attention to a model is affected by a number of different aspects, all of which interact with one another.

• Retention: an individual is required to recall what they have witnessed, store it in their memory, and then retrieve it in the form of replies at a later time. In order to maximize our potential for learning, it is essential to practice going over our observations.

• Reproduction: one must be able to duplicate the behavior that was shown by the model based on what is in their memory. The behavior that was displayed by the model was an example. Reproduction may take the shape of either motor activities (activities that include movement) or symbolic activities (images). Due to the fact that children's bodies are not yet fully developed, there are instances when they are unable to replicate the activities shown on the model.

• Motivation: the person has to have a cause for imitating the model and for displaying what they have witnessed in order to be successful. Motivating factors for learning and creating a response might include receiving reinforcement (both positive and negative), external influences (promised reward), or internal causes (simply enjoying oneself).

The evidence presented here, as well as social learning theory in general, points to the notion that both the environment (particularly the social context) and cognitive processes play an important role in the learning process. (It is important to keep in mind that behaviorists focused on concentrating only on observable behaviors and ignored mental processes.) The models and at least some of the motivation are considered to be a component of the environment, while attention, retention, and motivation are considered to be components of the cognitive processes. Therefore, the social learning theory is considered to be the link between many theories of behavioral learning and various models of cognitive learning.