Understanding Basic Pharmacology

Understand how the autonomic nervous system controls involuntary functions through sympathetic and parasympathetic pathways, using acetylcholine and norepinephrine to drive receptor-specific actions in the heart, vessels, eye, bronchi, and more.

Understand the parasympathetic nervous system, acetylcholine signaling through M1–M3 receptors, and the clinical use of direct and indirect parasympathomimetics like bethanechol, pilocarpine, rivastigmine, and related blockers.

Explains peptic ulcer pathophysiology, gastric and duodenal ulcers, and roles of H. pylori and NSAIDs. Covers diagnosis, eradication therapy, PPIs, H2 blockers, antacids, mucosal protectants, and GERD management.

Understand constipation and diarrhea definitions, common causes, and symptoms. Learn management strategies, including lifestyle modification, various laxatives, antidiarrheals, and organism-specific therapies.

Explore major antihypertensive drug groups, including ACE inhibitors, ARBs, diuretics, beta blockers, and calcium channel blockers—focusing on nifedipine, diltiazem, verapamil, nimodipine, and their vascular and cardiac effects.

Explore the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system and how ACE inhibitors lower blood pressure by blocking angiotensin II, with bradykinin–related side effects. Compare ARBs, which block AT1 receptors without bradykinin buildup.

Explore second line antihypertensive drugs, including arterial, venous, and mixed dilators; baroreflex and reflex tachycardia; and agents like nitroprusside, fenoldopam, and nitrates, with emergency management notes.

Explore loop diuretics and thiazides—their targets on the loop of Henle and distal tubule, calcium reabsorption, and roles in edema and pulmonary edema.

Understand how potassium-sparing diuretics block aldosterone action either by receptor competition (spironolactone) or channel blockade (amiloride, triamterene), their modest 2–5% diuretic effect, and risks of hyperkalemia and acidosis.

Outline diabetes mellitus pharmacology, including insulin types and dosing. Summarize major drug classes sulfonylureas, metformin, thiazolidinediones, GLP-1 agonists, DPP-4 inhibitors, and SGLT2 inhibitors and their mechanisms and adverse effects.

Understand the coagulation cascade and how heparin, warfarin, and NOACs block factor ten or two, with monitoring, reversal, and pregnancy considerations.

Fibrinolytics dissolve clots by activating plasminogen to plasmin at the site of thrombosis, using tissue plasminogen activator drugs like alteplase, reteplase, and tenecteplase for myocardial infarction, stroke, or pulmonary embolism.

Explore the biology of dyslipidemia, lipoprotein types from chylomicrons to HDL, and therapeutic strategies including statins, niacin, fibrates, ezetimibe, and PCSK9 inhibitors.

Explore dyslipidemia treatments from bile acid sequestrants and ezetimibe to statins, fibrates, niacin, and PCSK9 inhibitors, including mechanisms, dosing timing, and safety considerations.

Understand CNS pharmacology through psychosis and antipsychotics, detailing dopamine and serotonin roles and typical vs atypical drugs. Then overview parkinsonism treatments with levodopa and inhibitors.

Explore depression mechanisms, bipolar and unipolar disorders, and antidepressant classes, including TCAs, SSRIs, SNRIs, and atypicals, plus Alzheimer disease management with cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine.

Differentiate seizures, epilepsy, and convulsions. Explore first- and second-generation antiepileptics and how they modulate GABA, glutamate receptors, and ion channels to manage various seizure types.

Explore beta-lactam antibiotics, including penicillins and cephalosporins, their cell wall–inhibiting mechanisms, beta-lactamase resistance, and clinical use with vancomycin for MRSA and C. difficile.

Explore how aminoglycosides, macrolides, clindamycin, fluoroquinolones, and tetracyclines inhibit bacterial processes, detailing mechanisms, spectra, pharmacokinetics, resistance, and key adverse effects.

Explore how antiviral drugs block viral attachment, uncoating, replication, integration, protease activity, and release, with HIV, HCV, herpes, influenza, and HBV therapies and safety notes.