HEAD AND NECK ANAT,BIOCHEM,PHYSIO,MICRO,PATHO,DENTAL ANATOMY

Explore core biochemistry concepts, including enzyme structure and rate-limiting steps, metabolic pathways like glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and electron transport chain, deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid structure, and storage diseases.

Examine chemical principles in biochemistry, highlighting hydrogen bonds and water's polar, cohesive nature, and carbonic anhydrase catalyzing CO2 and water to carbonic acid and bicarbonate in RBCs and kidney.

Explore enzyme structure, coenzymes, and the induced-fit mechanism, then cover enzyme classes—oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, isomerases, and ligases—along with competitive and non-competitive inhibition, allosteric regulation, feedback, and zymogen activation.

Explore carbohydrate chemistry—from monosaccharides to polysaccharides, glycogen storage diseases, and glycogen breakdown; then examine amino acids, glycosaminoglycans, lipids, and lipoproteins in health and disease.

Explore glycolysis as a cytoplasmic pathway that converts glucose to two pyruvate with ATP and NADH, highlighting rate-limiting enzymes (hexokinase/glucokinase, PFK-1, pyruvate kinase) and lactate formation under anaerobic conditions.

Explains the cytoplasmic hexose monophosphate pathway, producing NADPH for fatty acid and steroid biosynthesis and for maintaining reduced glutathione as an antioxidant, plus ribose-5-phosphate for nucleotide synthesis.

Convert ammonia from protein metabolism into urea in the liver's mitochondrial matrix and cytoplasm. Phosphate synthetase is the rate-limiting enzyme; its absence causes hyperammonemia, cerebral edema, lethargy, convulsions, and death.

Review core physiology topics, from neuro and muscle physiology to respiration, renal function, gastrointestinal and endocrine systems, highlighting nerve conduction, blood flow, gas exchange, and hormone balance.

Explore neurophysiology concepts from ascending and descending tracks to receptors, motor pathways, and action potentials. Trace sensory pathways for vision, hearing, taste, and smell.

Explore respiratory physiology, covering lung volumes (tidal, erv, rv, frc, ic), alveolar ventilation, dead space, gas exchange, Bohr and Haldane effects, oxygen transport, and chemoreflex control.

Explore renal physiology, including glomerular filtration, countercurrent mechanism, and nephron segments from proximal tubule to collecting duct. Learn how RAAS, ADH, and aldosterone regulate water, electrolytes, and acid-base balance.

Explore GI physiology and its enteric nervous system, intragastric reflexes triggered by duodenal chyme, and the regulation of gastric emptying, digestion, and absorption of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

Learn tooth morphology and key anatomical features, such as cross-bridge groove, fossa, height of contour, dentition classifications (heterodont, homodont, polyphyodont), numbering systems (FDI, double-digit, universal), and occlusion concepts.

Explore the classification of dentitions and essential anatomical features such as lobes, mamelons, tubercles, ridges, grooves, and embrasures that define tooth morphology.

Explore maxillary and mandibular permanent teeth anatomy from central incisors to third molars, including crown features, mamelons, root forms, and occlusal principles.

Understand pulp morphology and the four canal configurations: type one single canal; type two two that merge; type three two separate exits; type four split exits at two apical foramina.

Analyze Posselt's envelope of motion, tracing border movements of the mandible across sagittal, horizontal (gothic arch), and frontal (teardrop) planes, with centric occlusion, centric relation, and rest position.

Review general microbiology and host–pathogen interactions, covering prokaryotic versus eukaryotic cells, bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites with clinical examples and serology highlights.

Explore head and neck infections, including abscess, granuloma, cysts, and cellulitis, with chronic inflammatory lesions, granulation tissue, angiogenesis, and macrophages, lymphocytes, plasma cells, epithelial cells, and multinucleated giant cells.

Explore mycology basics: fungal features such as ergosterol, chitin, and polysaccharide capsules, with sexual and asexual spores. Cover common infections including dermatophytosis, candidiasis, cryptococcosis, and mucormycosis, plus routes and toxins.

Explore general pathology topics from cell injury and inflammation to immunology, developmental pathology, and neoplasia, including edema, endocarditis, tuberculosis, and concepts like dysplasia and metastasis.

Explore cell death by comparing apoptosis and necrosis, highlight the three necrosis types: coagulative, liquefactive, and caseous, and review examples such as heart attack, brain abscess, pancreatitis, and tuberculosis.

Explore teratogens and maternal infections, including the Torch complex, that cause congenital malformations. Learn autosomal and sex chromosome abnormalities, and key genetic disorders such as cystic fibrosis, PKU, and Marfan.

Prostate cancer has the highest incidence in males, with prostate-specific antigen detectable. Lung cancer is the leading killer, primarily bronchogenic and smoking-related, with small cell and non-small cell paraneoplastic types.

Describe the trigeminal system from motor and sensory nuclei to thalamic relays (vpm, vpl) and the mesencephalic nucleus, covering touch, pain, temperature, proprioception, and facial region via trigeminal branches.

Identify CN VIII as hearing and balance nerve in temporal bone, innervating cochlea and semicircular canals, and review middle ear ossicles, Eustachian tube, presbycusis, nystagmus, COWS test.

Explore the glossopharyngeal nerve's motor supply to stylopharyngeus, sensory innervation of pharynx and posterior one-third of tongue, gag reflex, carotid body/sinus, and parotid parasympathetic via otic ganglion and petrosal branch.

The 11th nerve, the accessory nerve, when damaged can cause paralysis of the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius, leading to torticollis and shoulder droop.

Hypoglossal nerve CN XII, a pure motor, loops around the occipital artery and passes between external carotid and internal jugular veins, innervating tongue muscles except palatoglossus. LMN toward; UMN away.

Explore embryology of the central nervous system, detailing initiation to bell stages from week six to nine, and trace neural plate, neural folds, neural groove, and neural tube formation.