Secrets of DNA and Its Manipulation

Explore dna as hereditary material with a double helix, base pairs, and sugar phosphate backbone, and its packaging into chromosomes forming the genome to encode genes and codons.

Explore the structure of DNA as a double helix built from nucleotides, including base pairs A-T and C-G, the sugar-phosphate backbone, codons, and the genetic code that guides life.

Explore how the DNA double helix enables replication and information storage, with base pairing rules A–T and C–G, and how transcription to mRNA guides protein synthesis through translation.

Explore how the Atgc base order forms codons that code for amino acids, how genes include exons, introns, start and stop codons, regulatory elements, and the universal, degenerate code.

Explore how DNA organizes into chromosomes, contrasting prokaryotic nucleoid and plasmids with eukaryotic chromosomes, homologous pairs, and alleles, and follow chromatin to chromatids during cell division.

Discover how DNA packs from beads-on-a-string nucleosomes to 30 nm fibers, loops, and scaffolded structures, forming metaphase chromosomes through histone-mediated compaction and controlled access.

Genetic material packaging fits into the cell and organizes it on chromosomes, while histone methylation and acetylation act as switches turning genes on or off and regulating replication and transcription.

Explore the major and minor grooves of DNA, their widths, and how transcription factors interact with exposed base edges in the major groove; learn about B, A, and Z forms.

Explore mitochondria, their circular mitochondrial DNA, maternal inheritance, and how mutations influence aging and disease, alongside differences from nuclear DNA and the concept of heteroplasmy.

Explore how mitochondrial inheritance passes maternal mtDNA to offspring, linking maternal relatives and highlighting mutation-driven variability and its use in human rights cases, aging, and cancer.

Explore how genetic manipulation alters DNA to produce desired traits in plants, animals, and microbes, and compare selective breeding, genetic engineering, and genome editing.

Explore the basic workflow of gene manipulation and recombinant DNA technology, from DNA isolation and restriction enzymes to ligation and vector-mediated transfer, and examine its applications, benefits, and ethical considerations.

Discover recombinant DNA technology, joining DNA from different organisms in a host to enable gene manipulation and cloning with enzymes, vectors, and host organisms for science, medicine, agriculture, and industry.

Learn how plasmids and lambda phage vectors enable cloning of two to ten kilobases of DNA fragments in E. coli, using origins of replication, selectable markers, and cloning sites.

Explore the five steps of rDNA technology, from isolating DNA to inserting recombinant DNA into a host. Learn how restriction enzymes, PCR, ligation, and transformation drive cloning in bacteria.

Examine how recombinant DNA technology enables GMOs and plant–animal biotechnology using tools like vectors and restriction enzymes. Apply this approach to insulin production, vaccines, and gene therapies.

Genomic DNA library collects all DNA fragments of an organism’s genome, created by isolating DNA, cleaving with restriction enzymes, ligating into vectors, and transforming bacteria for amplification.

Explore how a cDNA library captures protein-coding genes via reverse transcription of mRNA, cloning, and expression in E. coli, contrasting with genomic libraries that include introns and untranscribed regions.

Gene editing mechanisms enable scientists to modify DNA using nucleases guided to target sites. Cutting DNA and repairing it enable insertion or replacement of genes, while acknowledging potential unintended changes.

Explore the core genome editing methods—meganucleases, ZFNs, TALENs, and CRISPR-Cas9—and how double-stranded breaks repaired by NHEJ or HDR enable precise gene changes.

Explore how zinc finger nucleases fuse zinc finger DNA binding domains to a DNA cleavage domain, dimerize with Fork one, target sequences, and leverage repair at a 5–7 bp spacer.

Explore zinc finger nucleases: DNA binding repeats recognizing 9–18 base pairs, 5–7 base pair spacing, dimerized FokI cleavage, and donor-template–driven HDR vs. NHEJ repair.

Learn steps of genome editing with zinc finger nucleases (zfns), including delivery of fok1 endonucleases and protein binding domains, nuclear entry, DNA targeting, double-strand breaks, and insertion of desired DNA.

Explore zinc finger nucleases for targeted genome editing across plants, animals, and humans. Learn how they modify alleles via homologous recombination or nhej, with disease models and therapy applications.