Remote Sensing for everyone

It is important to know something about data, data storage and some other aspects of computers if you are going into a computer driven field like remote sensing is today. Because of updating software, increasing data size, like LIDAR data that can be very large and data analysis complexity it can become necessary to at least understand some data stuff.

Raster files are in a grid format storing their data in colons and rows. There is allotting of formats used in different situations.

This is an introduction to the vector data system. Vector data is the data system for performing most of the analytical calculations in.

History is important you cnat go forward if you don’t know where you have been . This is the same for remote sensing.

• How did it start?

• How did it develop?

• And where is it going?

I hope to help you answer these questions.

Overview

Although Remote sensing is not considered to exist before flight people always had the interest in what they can’t see ore wanting to see objects from a different angle or height. Even if they had to climb a mountain to do so.

References

Baumann PR. (2009). HISTORY OF REMOTE SENSING, SATELLITE IMAGERY,
PART II. [online] http://employees.oneonta.edu/baumanpr/geosat2/rs%20history%20ii/rs-history-part-2.html

Encyclopaedia of Britannica. (2015). Nazca Lines. Encyclopedia Britannica. [online] https://www.britannica.com/place/Nazca-Lines

Schwartz N. (2020). History of Remote Sensing, Lecture Notes. Universaty of British Columbia Canada. Available at: https://ibis.geog.ubc.ca/courses/geog373/lectures/Handouts/lecture02.pdf

Laffly D. (2020). A Brief History of Remote Sensing. TORUS 2 – Toward an Open Resource Using Services: Cloud Computing for Environmental Data, Laffly D (Ed.). ISTE Ltd. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781119720553

Overview

What we would consider modern Remote Sensing started when the flight started and I don’t mean the airplane. We will look at some of the highlights of this period.

References

Baumann, PR. (2009). HISTORY OF REMOTE SENSING, SATELLITE IMAGERY,
PART II. [online] http://employees.oneonta.edu/baumanpr/geosat2/rs%20history%20ii/rs-history-part-2.html

Moore GK. (1979). What is a picture worth? A history of remote sensing. Hydrol Sci Bull 24:477–485. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667909491887

Roy PS, Behera MD. & Srivastav SK. (2017). Satellite Remote Sensing: Sensors, Applications and Techniques. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., India, Sect. A Phys. Sci. 87, 465–472. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40010-017-0428-8

Overview

With the introduction of powered flight there was more control of where the photographer and the camera when. The advantage of this is that photographic surveys could be made in regular lines and an area could be systematically covered. To provide a better base for mapping.

References

Baumann PR. (2009). HISTORY OF REMOTE SENSING, SATELLITE IMAGERY,
PART II. [online] http://employees.oneonta.edu/baumanpr/geosat2/rs%20history%20ii/rs-history-part-2.html

Watts AC, Ambrosia VG, Hinkley EA. (2012). Unmanned Aircraft Systems in Remote Sensing and Scientific Research: Classification and Considerations of Use. Remote Sensing 4(6):1671-1692. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3390/rs4061671

Overview

Space access give us a more stable platform and image coverage could began to expand. Now areas inaccessible for aircraft could be covered by satellite. Again, military and civilian interests bested the development of sensors and satellite platforms.

References

Baumann, PR. (2009). HISTORY OF REMOTE SENSING, SATELLITE IMAGERY,
PART II. http://employees.oneonta.edu/baumanpr/geosat2/rs%20history%20ii/rs-history-part-2.html

Cracknell, Arthur P. (2018). “The development of remote sensing in the last 40 years.” : 8387–8427

Madry S (2013) Introduction and history of space remote sensing scott. In: Handbook of satellite applications, pp 865–933. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-7671-0

Overview

Although drones are technically ‘powered aircraft it is unmanned and remotely controlled. The first droned flaw in the First World War, but in the early 2000 it really took off. This is currently the newest chapter in the history especially due to the small size and ease of operation. Now any one can practice remote sensing even if they don’t recognize it.

References

Baumann PR. (2009). History of Remote Sensing, Satellite Imagery, Part II. [online] http://employees.oneonta.edu/baumanpr/geosat2/rs%20history%20ii/rs-history-part-2.html

Cracknell AP. (2018). “The development of remote sensing in the last 40 years”: 8387–8427

Xiang T, Xia G & Zhang L. (2016). Mini-Unmanned Aerial Vehicle-Based Remote Sensing: Techniques, applications, and prospects, IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Magazine, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 29-63, Sept. 2019, doi: 10.1109/MGRS.2019.2918840.

Xue Li, Baosong Xiong, Zhaode Yuan, Kefeng He, Xiaoli Liu, Zhumei Liu & Zhaoqing Shen (2020) Evaluating the Potentiality of Using Control-free Images from a Mini Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) and Structure-from-Motion (SfM) Photogrammetry to Measure Paleoseismic Offsets, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 42:7, 2417-2439, DOI: 10.1080/01431161.2020.1862434

Image Source: IVM Royal Flying Corps In The First World War: https://media.iwm.org.uk/loris/331/745/large_000000.jpg/full/865,/0/default.jpg

Overview

An introduction to some of the key concepts of remote sensing.

Overview

The colour of objects that are visible and invisible form that objects that can be detected by the eye and instruments.

Overview

The contrast of the image is the difference between the darkest and lightest object on an image.

Overview

The smallest spit ion diastole that can be recorded on an image.

Overview

The time frequency when images of the same area have been taken

Overview

Getting an object on an image as close as possible to where it is on the earth’s surface. Bothe Photographic and digital remote sensing systems introduce geometric errors into the images due to several factors. Lenses, the angle of the camera to the ground, the make and model of the camera, the terrain over which the plain fly the distance of the object from the middle of the photo and more. All of these factors leave geometric errors that need to be corrected.

Overview

A remote sensing system is an integrated collection of parts improving one part will not necessarily improve the end product the system needs to be balanced. The different components need to be able to use the resulting data from the preceding components or parts of the remote sensing chain.

The atmosphere has an influence on imagery due to the scattering of EM short wave lengths. Like UV and Blue light. Also, partials and the time of day depend what wave lengths will be scattered.

Overview

The electromagnetic spectrum is one of the most important parts of the Remote Sensing process without it there will be no Remote Sensing possible.

Overview

The energy radiation is detected by Remote Sensing sensors to provide the data. Electromagnetic energy travel in waves with different wavelengths.

References

NASA Science Mission Directorate. (2010). Introduction to the Electromagnetic Spectrum. [online] http://science.nasa.gov/ems/01_intro

Overview

Remote sensing does not use all of the ER spectrum these are the most popular parts of it that gets used today.

References

NASA Science Mission Directorate. (2010). Introduction to the Electromagnetic Spectrum. [online] http://science.nasa.gov/ems/01_intro

Overview

An objects electromagnetic signature is its fingerprint every object has a different electromagnetic signature. This signature allows us to use remote sensing to identify different types of objects even different tree species in the forest, or different fields of crops. Vegetation under stress can also be identified.

References

NASA Science Mission Directorate. (2010). Introduction to the Electromagnetic Spectrum. [online] http://science.nasa.gov/ems/01_intro

USGS. Spectral Characteristics Viewer. [online] https://landsat.usgs.gov/spectral-characteristics-viewer

Overview

Overview

Passive sensors receive radiation from other sources and do not send out their own. Types of Passive sensors are:

• Photographic Cameras

• Electro-optic radiometers

• Passive Microwave

• Digital Cameras

Overview

This is the oldest technology but still used today because it is so useful, Photography has also developed allot since it was invented. It is a really interesting sensor and can do more than you think.

References

Masoner L. 2019. What Are the Different Parts of a Camera Body? Get to Know Your Camera and Improve Your Photography [online] https://www.thesprucecrafts.com/what-to-know-about-camera-body-2688630

Overview

These are electronic sensors used in electromagnetic detection. These sensors operate in the UV to microwave range.

Overview

These microwave sensors do not send out their own signals they just receive signals from the earth’s surface and objects on it.

Overview

These are electronic sensors used in Digital Cameras and in Remote Sensing Satellite sensors to act as the recorking (film) part of cameras.

References

2mcctv.com. 2021. CCD vs. CMOS Image Sensor Technology. [online] Available at: https://www.2mcctv.com/ccd-vs-cmos-image-sensor-technology/ [Accessed 28 June 2021].

Overview

Hyperspectral sensors capture reflectance energy in a continuance line rather that separate bands. The so-called bands cover the entire area of the EM spectrum captured by the sensor. The goal is to get all of the EM spectrum for a pixel in one continues line.

There are several sensor types:

• Spatial scanning

• Spectral Scanning

• Time scanning

• Snapshot Sensor

• Spatio-spectral scanning:

References

Miglani A. (2010). Hyperspectral Remote Sensing -an Overview - Geospatial World. [online] Geospatial World. Available at: https://www.geospatialworld.net/article/hyperspectral-remote-sensing-an-overview/ [Accessed 6 March 2021].

Tan SY. (2017). Developments in Hyperspectral Sensing, Handbook of Satellite Applications: Pelton J, Madry S, Camacho-Lara S. (eds). Springer, Cham. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-23386-4_101

ivens S, Pauly K, Baeck, P, Blommaert J, Nuyts D, Zender J, & Delauré B. (2017). A spatio-spectral camera for high resolution hyperspectral imaging. International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Vol. 42, pp. 223–228. Available at: https://doi.org/10.5194/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W6-223-2017

Sima AA, Baeck P, Nuyts D, Delalieux S, Livens S, Blommaert J. Delauré B & Boonen, M. (2016). Compact hyperspectral imaging system (cosi) for small remotely piloted aircraft systems (rpas) - System overview and first performance evaluation results. International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Vol. 2016-January, pp. 1157–1164. Available at: https://doi.org/10.5194/isprsarchives-XLI-B1-1157-2016

Abdo M, Badilita V & Korvink J. (2019). Spatial scanning hyperspectral imaging combining a rotating slit with a Dove prism Opt. Express 27, 20290-20304.

Weser T, Rottensteiner F, Willneff J & Fraser CS. (2008). An improved pushbroom scanner model for precise georeferencing of ALOS prism imagery. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences. Vol. XXXVII. Part B1. Beijing 2008 pp. 723–730. Available at: https://www.isprs.org/proceedings/xxxvii/congress/1_pdf/125.pdf

Wilson I & Cocks T. (2003). Development of the airborne reflective emissive spectrometer (ARES)-a progress report. Presented at the 3rd EARSeL Workshop on Imaging Spectroscopy, Herrsching, Germany, 13–16 May 2003.

Gat N. (2000). Imaging spectroscopy using tunable filters: a review. Proc. SPIE 4056, 50–65.

Geelen B, Tack N & Lambrechts A. (2013). A snapshot multispectral imager with integrated tiled filters and optical duplication. Proc. SPIE 8613, 861314 (2013).

Tseng T-Y, Lai P-J, & Sung K-B. (2011). High-throughput detection of immobilized plasmonic nanoparticles by a hyperspectral imaging system based on Fourier transform spectrometry. Opt. Express 19(2), 1291–1300.

En.wikipedia.org. 2021. Hyperspectral imaging - Wikipedia. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperspectral_imaging#Spatial_scanning [Accessed 28 June 2021].

Overview

Active sensors create their own electromagnetic energy that reflects from the surface of the earth. This reflected enemy then get captured by the sensor.

Sensor types

• RADAR

• LIDAR

Overview

Rader is an active sensor easing the microwave part of the EM spectrum to broadcast in. Rader is used in a number of bands that have different characteristics and uses. Allot of fields make use of radar during research and operations. Radar is use full in DEM, DTM and DSM production.

References

En.wikipedia.org. 2021. Side looking airborne radar - Wikipedia. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side_looking_airborne_radar [Accessed 28 June 2021].

Overview

Lidar uses laser sweeps in the EM spectrum from UV to Near IR. It sends out pulses and collect the reflection and backscatter from objects on the earth’s surface to compile a point cloud with every dot containing different spectral data representing the object from which it reflected from. Lidar have a multiple of uses and also measuring the spectral characteristics of objects also measure the distance of the object from the sensor. Lidar is useful in DEM, DTM, DSM and models production.

Overview

Everyone needs something to stand on this is the same with Sensors. Sensors need to mounted on some platform to do their job. These platforms can be:

• Ground Based.

• Airborne.

• Satellite.

These platforms differ in function, stability and quality of product. Different applications need different platforms or data from a combination of them.

Overview

Sensors do not need to be in the air or on satellites to be of use in remote sensing. They perform a variety of jobs in a range of places from handheld, towers, ROV’s and antennas. Atmospheric readings can be performed on some ground located sensors. This is beside radar keeping track of air traffic and other little things like drones that are not always where they are supposed to be.

References

Ye X, Sakai K, Okamoto H, Garciano LO. 2008. A ground-based hyperspectral imaging system for characterizing vegetation spectral features. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture. Volume 63, Issue 1. [Online] Available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2008.01.011. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0168169908000069

Overview

Aircraft fall under one of three altitudes low medium and height. That differ in stability and coverage.

• Low altitude aircraft:

  • Prop planes not pressurized

  • Helicopters

  • Microlights

  • Drones

• Mid altitude aircraft

  • Fixed wing turbo prop planes.

• Higher altitude aircraft

  • Jet aircraft.

The types of sensors used on aircraft differ dispensing on the job that they are doing:

• Photographic cameras

• Digital Cameras Visible range and Infrared.

References

Rehak M. Multiple types of remote sensing platforms. UAV technology... [Online] Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Multiple-types-of-remote-sensing-platforms-UAV-technology-complements-existing_fig3_314259443 Image: https://images.app.goo.gl/Sd4CDV5ffY2aDrQeA

Overview

There are 3 orbits commonly used by Remote Sensing satellites:

• Geosynchronous:

• Equatorial:

• Sun synchronous:

Satellites have space for more than one sensor or sensor, called the payload of the satellite. Sensors can include:

• Photographic systems,

• Electro-optical sensors,

• Microwave sensors

• Lidar systems

Other systems can include

• Recording systems

• Preprocessing systems

• Transmitting systems

References

Image used: https://images.app.goo.gl/a2Pn3xsV2RRzmMfr7

Overview

Space Craft brings human interaction to the space born area of remote sensing and science.

References

Wikipedia. Space Shuttle Endeavour. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Shuttle_Endeavour Image: https://images.app.goo.gl/wJbFQSuSTx565DCW7

Wikipedia. International Space Station. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Space_Station Image: https://images.app.goo.gl/wp8cX9ThxU1wcGGh9

Overview

In this section we will discuss some basic geographic principles used allot during remote sensing. This should be familiar to you since remote sensing is part of the larger Geographic field so allot of its principles are used and applied to remote sensing. Scale, Coordinate systems and projections.

Overview

Scale can be a confusing concept in Geography, Remote Sensing and Photogrammatry. Then throw in the real world where scale can be totally different.

Reference

AP Human Geography. 2021. Module 1.5: Field Work and Geospatial Data. [online] Available at: http://aphumangeog.weebly.com/module-15-field-work-and-geospatial-data.html

E-education.psu.edu. (n.d.). Map and Photo Scale | The Nature of Geographic Information. [online] Available at: https://www.e-education.psu.edu/natureofgeoinfo/c2_p5.html [Accessed 15 March 2021].

Gsp.humboldt.edu. (n.d.). Scale and Aerial Photography. [online] Available at: http://gsp.humboldt.edu/OLM/Courses/GSP_216_Online/lesson2-2/scale.html [Accessed 15 March 2021].

Maps Catalog Online. 2021. How To Draw A Scale On A Map. [online] Available at: https://mapscatalogonline.blogspot.com/2016/02/how-to-draw-scale-on-map.html

Overview

The shape of the earth and haw we find our place on it.

References

ESRI. (2020). Spheroids and spheres—ArcMap | Documentation. [online] Desktop.arcgis.com. Available at: https://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/latest/map/projections/spheroids-and-spheres.htm [Accessed 19 March 2021].

ESRI. (2020). About map projections—ArcMap | Documentation. [online] Desktop.arcgis.com. Available at: https://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/latest/map/projections/about-map-projections.htm [Accessed 19 March 2021].

Overview

This is the 3-D coordinate system that show the location of an object on the surface of the earth in its globe form.

References

ESRI. (2020). Datums—ArcMap | Documentation. [online] Available at: <https://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/latest/map/projections/datums.htm> [Accessed 19 March 2021].

ESRI. (2020). What are geographic coordinate systems? —ArcMap | Documentation. [online] Desktop.arcgis.com. Available at: <https://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/latest/map/projections/about-geographic-coordinate-systems.htm> [Accessed 19 March 2021].

Overview

To measure the objects on the surface of the earth we need to get the ball shape flat and ad a uniform measuring system. This is what the Projected Coordinate system do.

References

ESRI. (2020). About map projections—ArcMap | Documentation. [online] Desktop.arcgis.com. Available at: https://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/latest/map/projections/about-map-projections.htm

ESRI. (2020). Projection types—ArcMap | Documentation. [online] Desktop.arcgis.com. Available at: https://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/latest/map/projections/projection-types.htm

ESRI, 2020. What are projected coordinate systems?—ArcMap | Documentation. [online] Desktop.arcgis.com. Available at: https://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/latest/map/projections/about-projected-coordinate-systems.htm