Explore the superposition principle for differential equations, showing how linear combinations of solutions yield new solutions, and introduce the Wronskian to test linear independence of functions.

Explore second order differential equations with constant coefficients, solve via the auxiliary equation, and classify solutions for distinct real, repeated, and complex roots with examples.

Identify fundamental, linearly independent solutions for a second-order linear differential equation, show any solution is a linear combination of these, and establish the unique solution via initial conditions.

Explore eigenvalues and eigenvectors of linear operators by solving A v = lambda v and det(A - lambda I) = 0, with a 2x2 example yielding eigenvalues 1 and -1.

Learn how Markov chains model a sequence of dependent random events with state vectors and transition probabilities, illustrated by weather examples.

Explains the dot product in R^n, defines the vector norm and distance, and derives the angle between vectors via cosine, linking inner product, length, and orientation.

Explore projection in inner product spaces and the constructive method to build an orthonormal basis in any finite dimensional space.

Define the orthogonal complement in an inner product space: W⊥ consists of all vectors orthogonal to every w in W, with examples and basis construction.

Explore the adjoint of a linear operator with respect to inner products, its matrix representation, and conditions for self-adjointness, including the spectral theorem and eigenvector bases.

Explore unitary operators that preserve inner products and norms, and understand isometries as norm-preserving mappings, including plane reflections as examples and conditions for linearity.

Explain the structure of normal operators and their spectral properties. Show that finite-dimensional normal operators are unitarily diagonalizable, with eigenvalues and eigenvectors, and that commuting products preserve normality.

Explore the Gram-Schmidt process for orthogonalisation of quadratic forms, constructing orthonormal bases via projections under a defined inner product.