Introduction to Pharmacology for the Health Sciences

Understand how medications vary by prescription status and over-the-counter availability, and grasp indications, mechanism of action, contraindications, and off-label use with acetaminophen as an example.

Verify seven rights and three checks at three points—when taking out, preparing, and at bedside—to ensure correct person, medication, dose, route, time, reason, and documentation. Policies may differ by agency.

Explore pharmacokinetics, detailing absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion, and pharmacodynamics, including affinity, bioavailability, drug action at receptors, ion channels, enzymes, and immune system effects.

Examine absorption across routes: oral, sublingual, enteral, rectal, topical, transdermal, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous, and inhalation, plus first-pass metabolism and factors that affect bioavailability.

Distribution disperses medication through the bloodstream, influenced by blood flow, plasma protein binding, and barriers like the blood brain barrier and placenta, with unintended effects from binding to non-target sites.

Enzymes in the liver and intestines break down drugs, with most metabolism in the liver; some undergo first-pass metabolism, and neonates have developing livers while older adults face higher toxicity.

Kidneys excrete byproducts in urine and may require dose adjustments with reduced function; the liver clears drugs to bile and feces, with excretion also via sweat, tears, and breast milk.

Explore how pharmacodynamics explains drug mechanisms at receptors, including agonists and antagonists, and how onset, peak, and duration shape the therapeutic window and toxicity risk.

Identify infection as the invasion and multiplication of pathogens in body tissues, where pathogens include bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, and parasites.

Investigate how bacteria cause local and systemic infections and sepsis, and how culture, gram staining, sensitivity analysis, and narrow versus broad spectrum antibiotics guide treatment.

Explore how viruses, non-living pathogens, rely on a living host to replicate and are enclosed by genetic material in a protein coat. Understand how antiviral drugs disrupt viral replication.

Explore fungal infections: spores, moist areas, and how natural flora contain fungi. Learn how topical antifungals treat infections, especially in immunocompromised patients.

Parasites and protozoa transmit through contaminated food or water, contact with infected animals, and insect bites, while the immune response disrupts organ and body functions.

Explore how half life influences antimicrobial dosing, balancing longer action with side effects, and apply time dependent versus dose dependent strategies, including synergistic and antagonistic interactions.

Explore beta-lactam antibiotics, including penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, and monobactams, which share a beta-lactam ring and bind to and inactivate enzymes required for bacterial cell wall synthesis.

Explore sulfonamides, antibiotics that competitively inhibit metabolism. They target growth of gram positive and gram negative pathogens and treat UTIs, otitis media, bronchitis exacerbations, traveler's diarrhea, with common allergic reactions.

Explore fluoroquinolones as broad-spectrum antibiotics for pneumonia and complicated skin or urinary tract infections, inhibiting bacterial DNA replication while noting risks like tendinitis, neuropathy, CNS effects, and myasthenia gravis-related weakness.

Macrolides are broad-spectrum antibiotics that inhibit RNA protein synthesis and suppress reproduction, used for respiratory infections, otitis media, pelvic inflammatory infections, and chlamydia. Use cautiously in patients with liver disease.

Describe aminoglycosides as potent, broad spectrum antibiotics for infections, given intravenous or intramuscular, with nephrotoxic, neurotoxic, and ototoxic risks, and note their protein synthesis inhibition and beta lactam synergy (gentamicin).

Tetracyclines treat infections but pose side effects like photosensitivity, tooth discoloration, and renal or liver impairment, and they work by inhibiting protein synthesis, with Doxycycline as a common example.

Explore how glycopeptides treat MRSA and C difficile infections by inhibiting cell wall synthesis, with vancomycin as a primary example. Note nephrotoxicity, ototoxicity, and red man syndrome from rapid infusion.

Antitubercular drugs selectively target mycobacteria, inhibiting rna synthesis and cell wall production to treat tuberculosis. The course notes emphasize long treatment durations and potential liver function impact.

Explore antiviral subclasses, including anti-herpes, anti-influenza, antiretrovirals, and anti-hepatitis; explain acyclovir’s mechanism and topical or systemic use, and describe Tamiflu’s role in blocking release and reducing influenza symptoms.

Explore antiviral subclasses—anti herpes, anti influenza, antiretrovirals, and anti hepatitis—and how acyclovir interrupts viral replication, with topical or systemic use and influenza prophylaxis.

Antimalarials prevent and treat malaria by targeting intracellular processes in Plasmodium-infected red blood cells. Treatments often require sustained regimens lasting several months, with chloroquine as a notable example.

Antiprotozoals inhibit protozoan folic acid synthesis to impair the protozoal cell, addressing infections like giardiasis and toxoplasmosis. Metronidazole is a common antiprotozoal example.

Explore how anthelmintics target parasitic worms, including roundworms and flatworms like tapeworms and flukes, by disrupting glucose uptake and impairing ATP, calcium, or neuronal transmission to cause paralysis and death.

Explore how preganglionic neurons from spine or sacrum connect with postganglionic neurons at synapses, and how acetylcholine and norepinephrine shape sympathetic and parasympathetic signaling via nicotinic, adrenergic, and muscarinic receptors.

Explore the sympathetic nervous system and how adrenergic agonists (sympathomimetics) upregulate it, while adrenergic antagonists downregulate it.

Alpha-1 receptor stimulation contracts most smooth muscle, including the uterus and bladder, and constricts vessels. It also dilates pupils, increases glucose production, and relaxes GI tract smooth muscle.

Explain how alpha-2 receptors relax blood vessels and reduce CNS stimulation, platelet aggregation, and insulin release. Alpha-2 agonists act as antihypertensives and sedatives, while antagonists have limited clinical use.

Explore beta-1 receptors in the heart and kidneys that raise blood pressure via heart rate, contractility, and renin release. Beta-1 agonists increase, while antagonists decrease, these effects.

Explore how beta-2 receptor stimulation relaxes smooth muscle, bronchodilates the lungs, relaxes the uterus, and increases liver glucose production, with beta-2 agonists and the bronchoconstriction risk from non-selective beta blockers.

Catecholamines mimic your body's natural neurotransmitters, increasing during stress to treat shock, anaphylaxis, and support cardiac resuscitation by stimulating beta and alpha receptors (dopamine, epinephrine (adrenaline), and norepinephrine).

Explore how acetylcholine activates nicotinic and muscarinic receptors in the parasympathetic nervous system, and distinguish cholinergic from anticholinergic medications.

Explore muscarinic cholinergic pharmacology, comparing direct and indirect agonists, and the effects on smooth muscle, heart rate, bronchoconstriction, GI and genitourinary tone, with pyridostigmine as an example.

Inhibiting acetylcholine lets the sympathetic system dominate, relaxing smooth muscle. Remember the sludge side effects: decreased saliva and tears, urinary retention, drowsiness, dizziness, GI upset, and dry, blurry eyes.

Explore how the respiratory system enables ventilation. Identify the conducting zone’s air flow, debris removal, and warming and humidifying air, and alveolar gas exchange in the respiratory zone.

Explore conditions and diseases affecting gas exchange, including allergy-related airway reactions, asthma, bronchitis, COPD, emphysema, and pneumonia, and their respiratory symptoms.

Explore how antihistamines block H1 receptors to prevent histamine binding and reduce secretions, and how decongestants, corticosteroids, beta-2 agonists, and anticholinergics support ventilation.

Explore how perfusion enables the heart to move oxygen and nutrients through the body and support the elimination of waste products.

The heart drives perfusion by delivering oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to organs while removing deoxygenated blood and waste, ensuring body and tissue function, including its own tissues.

Understand how the heart's four chambers coordinate circulation: right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body, left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs, ventricles pump to lungs and body.

Explore the pulmonary and systemic circuits that transport oxygen to the body and carbon dioxide to be exhaled, detailing how blood moves between lungs, tissues, and the heart.

Coordinate the heart's rhythm through the SA node, AV node, bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers, using sodium, potassium, and calcium ions to drive conduction and contraction.

Trace the cardiac cycle from atrial contraction through ventricular relaxation, highlighting systole and diastole. Describe how atria fill, pressure rises, and ventricles pump blood, with the ecg noting atrial relaxation.

Calculate cardiac output by multiplying stroke volume by heart rate, and explain how sympathetic and parasympathetic input, norepinephrine, preload, contractility, and afterload shape heart rate and stroke volume.

Explore how blood flows through vessels and how systolic and diastolic pressures arise from cardiac output, blood volume, and vascular compliance, with atherosclerosis increasing resistance and raising pressure.

Explore how baroreceptors, chemoreceptors, and the RAAS regulate cardiovascular homeostasis by adjusting heart rate, vascular resistance, and fluid balance through renin, angiotensin, and aldosterone.

Explore how the kidney receives blood via renal artery and afferent arteriole, filters in glomerulus, regulates pressure with renin, and produces erythropoietin for red blood cells, tracked by gfr.

Explore blood composition and the coagulation cascade, from vascular spasm and platelet plug to intrinsic and extrinsic pathways, factor X activation, and fibrin formation.

Explore how edema from fluid overload links to heart, liver, and kidney disorders, and examine cholesterol types, hypertension, atherosclerosis, thrombi, DVT, emboli, and strokes.

Assess blood pressure and heart rate before administering medications that affect perfusion or renal elimination; monitor ECG for antiarrhythmics and review electrolytes, labs to guard kidney function and bleeding risk.

Explore antiarrhythmic medications that regulate heart rate and rhythm by altering electrical conduction. The course covers class I to IV drugs and adenosine, with emphasis on electrolytes and ECG monitoring.

Cardiac glycosides like digoxin from foxglove increase intracellular calcium by inhibiting the sodium-potassium pump, boosting contractility and cardiac output. They reduce heart rate and conduction, requiring potassium and digoxin monitoring.

Explore anti-anginal medications that relieve angina by boosting coronary blood flow or lowering heart oxygen demand, including nitrates like nitroglycerin and routes such as sublingual tablets, creams, patches, and intravenously.

Explore how diuretics reduce blood pressure and edema by inhibiting sodium and water reabsorption in the kidneys, with loop, thiazide, potassium-sparing, and osmotic classes.

Explore antihypertensive classes—ACE inhibitors, ARBs, alpha two agonists, vasodilators, and beta one antagonists—and their roles in the renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system, vasodilation, cough with ACE inhibitors, and blood pressure control.

Explore how anticoagulants, antiplatelets, and thrombolytics influence coagulation, monitor labs such as ptt and pt/inr, and manage bleeding risks with antidotes like protamine and vitamin k.

Explore erectile agents used to treat erectile dysfunction, which increase blood flow through vasodilation. Learn their contraindication with nitroglycerin to prevent severe hypotension.

Explore how the stomach's surface epithelium protects with mucus. Secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor for vitamin B12 absorption, while chief cells release pepsinogen for digestion.

Learn how the large intestine absorbs water and forms stool, how peristalsis moves feces to the rectum, triggering the defecation reflex and external anal sphincter control.

Explore gastroesophageal reflux disease and peptic ulcer disease and their impact on gastrointestinal elimination. Learn about diarrhea and constipation, defecation, and related causes and dehydration risks.

Nausea arises from signals to the vomiting center in the medulla from CTZ, GI tract, cortex, thalamus, and vestibular region. CTZ, not restricted by the blood-brain barrier, detects toxins.

Use antiflatulents post-operatively to prevent gas and coalesce smaller gas bubbles into larger ones, relieving gas-related symptoms such as uncomfortable pressure, fullness, and bloating.

Antidiarrheal medications relieve symptoms by adsorbing toxins or bacteria, slowing peristalsis with antimotility agents, and restoring gut flora with probiotics, though they do not treat the underlying cause.

Explore laxatives used to prevent or treat constipation, including fiber supplements, stool softeners, osmotic agents, lubricants, and stimulants, with examples like psyllium and mineral oil enemas.

Explore how antiemetics treat nausea and vomiting by targeting neurotransmitters with anticholinergics, antihistamines, dopamine antagonists, prokinetics, serotonin antagonists, neurokinin antagonists, and THC, influencing the chemoreceptor trigger zone and vomiting center.

Explore mood, cognition, and CNS regulation, defining cognition as language, learning, memory, perception, and executive function, and distinguishing the central nervous system as the brain and spinal cord.

Explore how neurons communicate in the central nervous system through chemical synapses, neurotransmitter receptor interactions, and action potentials that relay sensory information to the thalamus and cortex.

Explore central nervous system conditions such as anxiety, depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, ADHD, seizures, epilepsy, status epilepticus, and Parkinson's disease, including mood, behavior, cognitive symptoms, and motor disturbances.

Identify how central nervous system depressants slow brain activity to manage seizures and anxiety. Barbiturates serve as anticonvulsants and sedatives, while benzodiazepines bind GABA receptors to produce inhibitory effects.

Block reuptake of norepinephrine and dopamine to keep these excitatory neurotransmitters active and stimulate the brain. Treat ADHD and resemble amphetamines in their stimulant action.

Learn how antidepressants such as TCAs, SSRIs, Snris, and MAOIs treat depression by altering monoamines—by inhibiting reuptake or monoamine oxidase—and note their side effects and tyramine interactions.

Explore antimanic medications, focusing on lithium, its uncertain mechanism, and how it shifts dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine metabolism, with monitoring of sodium levels to prevent hyponatremia within narrow therapeutic range.

Explore antipsychotics for schizophrenia, mania, and depression, comparing first generation agents with severe adverse effects to atypical antipsychotics that block dopamine and serotonin receptors with fewer adverse effects.

Enhance seizure control by stabilizing cell membranes, suppressing abnormal brain impulses, raising the transmission threshold, slowing seizures, and boosting the effects of Gaba with gabapentin.

Explain how Parkinson's disease involves a dopamine and acetylcholine imbalance and how carbidopa levodopa treats it by crossing the blood brain barrier and boosting dopamine while preventing levodopa breakdown.

Explore how the endocrine system regulates homeostasis by signaling hormones through the bloodstream, binding to receptors on target cells, and coordinating communication and control across body organs.

Identify how feedback loops regulate hormone secretion to prevent abnormal levels, with the negative feedback loop inhibiting further release when hormone levels are adequate.

Explore how endocrine glands release hormones in response to humoral stimuli, by stimulation from other hormones, or by nervous system signals, and how these interactions regulate endocrine function.

Explore the hypothalamus-pituitary complex and its coordination of endocrine and nervous signals. Learn ADH from posterior pituitary and seven anterior hormones, plus CRH- and TRH-driven pathways.

Examine metabolic regulation disorders, including Cushing's disease with excess cortisol, Addison's disease and crisis, diabetes mellitus types 1 and 2 with insulin issues, and autoimmune hypothyroidism.

Explore the adrenal glands and HPA axis, and how glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids (aldosterone), epinephrine, and norepinephrine regulate stress, metabolism, and fight‑or‑flight responses.

The pancreas regulates blood sugar through insulin and glucagon secreted by pancreatic islets; high glucose triggers insulin, low glucose triggers glucagon, while glucose stores as glycogen or triglycerides.

Learn how glucagon from pancreatic alpha cells raises blood glucose by glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver, promotes lipolysis, and is used to treat severe hypoglycemia via injections.

Explain how GI triggers beta cell insulin release to lower blood glucose via glycolysis, glycogen storage, and lipid/protein synthesis, and compare basal versus prandial insulin types and dosing.

Explain oral antihyperglycemics used with diet and exercise to manage type 2 diabetes, including sulfonylureas, biguanides, and DPP-4 inhibitors, and their effects on insulin secretion, glucose production, and incretins.

Explore how the thyroid synthesizes T3 and T4 from iodide under TSH control, involving thyroglobulin and iodide uptake, with transport proteins regulating hormone release in pharmacology for the health sciences.

Explain how low T3 and T4 trigger hypothalamic TRH release, stimulate pituitary TSH secretion, and prompt the thyroid to release T3 and T4 in a negative feedback loop.

Explore how thyroid hormones regulate metabolism and body temperature, increase sensitivity to epinephrine and norepinephrine, and control protein synthesis.

Explore how iodine deficiency impairs T3 and T4 production, elevates TSH, and causes goitre, while outlining hypothyroidism, Graves disease, and hyperthyroidism treatments.

Explore calcium regulation by calcitonin and parathyroid hormone, detailing osteoclast inhibition, bone calcium release, renal reabsorption, calcitriol production, and the consequences of hyperparathyroidism.

Discover thyroid medications like levothyroxine, a synthetic thyroid hormone, and TT for hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism, plus osteoporosis therapies calcitonin and alendronate that inhibit osteoclasts and reduce fractures.