Introduction to human anatomy

Terms of movements

1) Flexion and Extension:

Flexion: is the movement which approximates the ventral (anterior) surfaces to each other.

Extension: is the movement which moves the ventral surfaces away from each other.

There is an exception for this rule; in the lower limb flexion moves the posterior surface near to each other and the reverse occurs in extension.

In the trunk there are two types of flexion; forward flexion and lateral flexion.

2) Adduction and abduction:

Adduction: is the movement which brings the limb (upper or lower) towards the midline of the body.

Abduction: is the movement which moves the limb away from the midline of the body.

3) Medial rotation and Lateral rotation:

Medial rotation: is the movement which rotates the limb (upper or lower) to bring its anterior surface towards the midline.

Lateral rotation: is the movement which rotates the limb (upper or lower) to bring its anterior surface away from the midline.

4) Circumduction: It is a combination of flexion , abduction , extension and adduction in succession. It occurs at the shoulder and hip joints .

5) Elevation and depression: as occurs in the shoulder joint or in the movement of the mandible (lower jaw).

6) Protraction and Retraction:

Protraction: forward movement of the shoulder girdle as in pushing or of the mandible to bring the lower teeth infront of the upper teeth.

Retraction: is the backward movement of the shoulder girdle or of the mandible to bring the lower teeth opposite the upper teeth.

7) Inversion and eversion: occurs in the foot only:

Inversion: is the movement which turns the sole of the foot to the inner side or medially (inwards).

Eversion: is the movement which turns the sole of the foot to the outer side or laterally (outwards).

8) Supination and pronation: occurs in the forearm.

Pronation is the movement which turns the palm of the hand backwards.

Supination is the movement which turns the palm of the hand forwards.

9) Opposition: restricted to the thumb and it is the movement which brings the palmar surface of the distal phalanx of the thumb with those of the other fingers .

Terms of movements

1) Flexion and Extension:

Flexion: is the movement which approximates the ventral (anterior) surfaces to each other.

Extension: is the movement which moves the ventral surfaces away from each other. There is an exception for this rule; in the lower limb flexion moves the posterior surface near to each other and the reverse occurs in extension.

In the trunk there are two types of flexion; forward flexion and lateral flexion.

2) Adduction and abduction:

Adduction: is the movement which brings the limb (upper or lower) towards the midline of the body.

Abduction: is the movement which moves the limb away from the midline of the body.

3) Medial rotation and Lateral rotation:

Medial rotation: is the movement which rotates the limb (upper or lower) to bring its anterior surface towards the midline.

Lateral rotation: is the movement which rotates the limb (upper or lower) to bring its anterior surface away from the midline.

4) Circumduction: It is a combination of flexion , abduction , extension and adduction in succession. It occurs at the shoulder and hip joints .

5) Elevation and depression: as occurs in the shoulder joint or in the movement of the mandible (lower jaw).

6) Protraction and Retraction:

Protraction: forward movement of the shoulder girdle as in pushing or of the mandible to bring the lower teeth infront of the upper teeth.

Retraction: is the backward movement of the shoulder girdle or of the mandible to bring the lower teeth opposite the upper teeth.

7) Inversion and eversion: occurs in the foot only:

Inversion: is the movement which turns the sole of the foot to the inner side or medially (inwards).

Eversion: is the movement which turns the sole of the foot to the outer side or laterally (outwards).

8) Supination and pronation: occurs in the forearm.

Pronation is the movement which turns the palm of the hand backwards.

Supination is the movement which turns the palm of the hand forwards.

9) Opposition: restricted to the thumb and it is the movement which brings the palmar surface of the distal phalanx of the thumb with those of the other fingers.

Joints

- The sites of meeting between two bones or more are called joints.

- Classification (Based on the material binding them and presence or absence of a joint cavity). They are classified into three types:

- Fibrous

- Cartilagenous

- Synovial

Fibrous joints: the articular surfaces of the bones are bounded together by fibrous tissue. Very little movement can be allowed. The fibrous joints are subdivided into three types:

1. Gomphosis: limited to the teeth to fix them in their sockets in alveolar margins of the jaws

2. Syndesmosis present between the bones of the forearm (radius and ulna) and between the bones of the leg (tibia and fibula). The two bones are bounded together by a dense membrane of fibrous tissue called the interosseous membrane

3. Sutures: present between the bones of the skull

1- Cartilaginous joints: the bony surfaces are connected together by cartilage. These joints are of two types:

1. Primary cartilaginous joints: the bones are connected together by a plate of hyaline cartilage. They are present between the epiphysis and diaphysis of the long bones. They are temporary allow growth of long bones in length and disappear at puberty. They have no movement.

2. Secondary cartilaginous joints: the ends of the bones are covered by hyaline cartilage and they are connected together by a plate of fibrocartilage. These joints are permanent and permit a little degree of movement. They are present at the joints of the midline of the body e.g. intervertebral discs and symphsis pubis.

2- Synovial joints: These joints have a wide range of movements.

Characters:

1. The articular surfaces are covered by hyaline cartilage.

2. The joint has a fibrous capsule enclosing a joint cavity.

3. The capsule is lined by synovial membrane which is reflected to cover the non-articular bony parts within the joint cavity.

4. The joint cavity contains a film of serous fluid called synovial fluid secreted by the synovial membrane to lubricate the articular surfaces.

5. The joint is supported by ligaments which may be extra-capsular or intra-capsular.

6. Some joints contain plates of fibrocartilage called intra-articular discs as the knee joint.

- Classification of synovial joints: the synovial joints are classified according to the shape of the articular surfaces into several types:

- According to morphology:

- 1- Simple: only 2 bones articulated with other e.g. shoulder and hip joints

- 2- compound: more than two pointes articulated with each other.e.g. elbow or ankle joint

- 3- complex: bones articulated with presence of inter- articular structures e.g.knee joint

- According to degree of movement:

1) Plane joints: Plane joints (Fig. 22): the articular surfaces are flat. It allows slight gliding or sliding movements e.g. intercarpal and intertarsal joints.

1- Angular joints: that permited movement and form angles between the articulating bones (flextion,extention).e.g. ankle ,knee

2- Circumduction joints: that permitted successive angular movements.e.g.shoulder and hip joints

- According to the axis of movments:

- Unixial joints:

1- Hinge joint: these joints resemble a hinge of a door. It moves along transverse axis. It permits flexion and extension only e.g. elbow joint.

2- Pivot joint: These joints move along a longitudinal axis and allow rotation only e.g. superior and inferior radio-ulnar joints.

- Biaxial joints

1- Ellipsoid: an elliptical convex surface is received into an elliptical concave one. It allows flexion and extension, and adduction and abduction. Rotation in this type is impossible e.g. wrist joint

2- Saddle shaped : Each of the articular surfaces is concavo-convex. The convexity of one surface is received into the concavity of the other one and vice versa. It resemble a saddle on the back of a horse e.g. carpometacarpal joint of the thumb.

3- Condyloid joints: two convex articular surfaces articulate with two concave articular surfaces. Movements of flexion and extension and a minimal degree of rotation are allowed. e.g. Knee joint.

- Polyaxial joints

- Ball and socket joints: a ball shaped head of one bone is received into a socket-like concavity of another bone. This type permits flexion and extension, abduction and adduction, medial and lateral rotation and circumduction. e.g. the hip and the shoulder joints.

- Nerve supply of the joints: the capsule and the ligaments have rich sensory nerve supply. According to Hilton’s low the nerve supply of a muscle supply also the joint moved by it, and supplies the skin overlying the insertions of these muscles.

- Ligaments: cord of connective tissue that unites two structures. They are present commonly in the joints:

- Bursa: closed fibrous sacs, lined internally with delicate smooth synovial membrane and contain a film of serous fluid. They are present between the tendons and the bone or between the tendons and ligaments to lubricate the movements.

General anatomy

.

1. The correct anatomical position does NOT include which of the following positions?

a. Palms facing backwards.

b. Standing erect.

c. Hands at the sides, and feet parallel.

d. Head facing forward.

2. The plane which divides the body into anterior and posterior parts is;.

a. sagittal

b. transverse

c. coronal

d. parasagittal

3. The plane which divides the body into right and left halves is;.

a. sagittal

b. transverse

c. coronal

d. parasagittal

4. Another name for the midsagittal plane is

a. parasagittal.

b. oblique.

c. coronal.

d. median.

5. A coronal section through the human body can

a. pass through both the nose and the occipital region.

b. pass through both ears.

c. provide mirror right and left images.

d. lie in a horizontal plane.

6. Imaginary vertical plane passing longitudinally through the body dividing it into equal right and left halves

a. median plane

b. sagittal plane

c. coronal plane

d. horizontal plane

7. Movement away from the median plane

a. adduction

b. eversion

c. abduction

d. inversion

8. The median plane corresponds to the:

a. coronal plane

b. sagittal plane

c. inferior plane

d. transtubercular plane

9. One of these statements is incorrect about the normal anatomical position.

a. Standing up erect

b. arms on the sides

c. feet far apart

d. palms facing forwards.

10. When standing in the correct anatomical position, the feet are …………. to the knees.

a. proximal

b. lateral

c. medial

d. distal

11. The sternal region is ……….. to the vertebral column.

a. superior

b. lateral

c. anterior

d. proximal

e. Deep

12. The knee is …………. to the foot.

a. superior

b. lateral

c. anterior

d. proximal

e. deep

13. The brain is ……………… to the skull.

a. superior

b. lateral

c. anterior

d. proximal

e. deep

14. The lip is ………….. to the chin.

a. superior

b. lateral

c. anterior

d. proximal

e. deep

15. The eye is …………………….. to the occipital region.

a. superior

b. lateral

c. anterior

d. proximal

e. deep

16. The gluteal region is ………………… to the popliteal region.

a. superior

b. lateral

c. anterior

d. proximal

e. deep

17. The femoral region is ………………. to the plantar region.

a. superior

b. lateral

c. anterior

d. proximal

e. deep

18. The heart is ……………..to the sternum.

a. superior

b. lateral

c. anterior

d. proximal

e. deep

19. The pubic area is ………….. to the gluteal region.

a. superior

b. lateral

c. anterior

d. proximal

e. deep

20. The anatomical term meaning away from the midline is

a. distal.

b. inferior.

c. lateral.

d. medial.

e. proximal.

21. The anatomical term meaning close to the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk is:

a. distal.

b. inferior.

c. lateral.

d. medial.

e. proximal.

22. The anatomical term meaning farther from the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk is:

a. distal.

b. inferior.

c. lateral.

d. medial.

e. anterior.

23. The anatomical term meaning toward the lower part of a structure is

a. distal.

b. inferior.

c. lateral.

d. medial.

e. anterior.

24. The anatomical term meaning toward the midline of the body is

a. distal.

b. inferior.

c. lateral.

d. medial.

e. anterior.

25. The movement of a limb towards the midline of the body is known as:

a. flexion.

b. extension.

c. abduction.

d. adduction.

e. pronation.

26. Movement of the jaw upwards to close the mouth is called:

a. retraction.

b. elevation.

c. flexion.

d. Extension

e. Protraction..

27. The term medial is

a. a direction closer to the midline of the body.

b. a term referring to a direction away from the midline of the body.

c. refers to a direction farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body part.

d. a term referring to the front of the body.

e. a term referring to the superior (cranial or cephalad) direction.

28. Which of the following planes would separate the cranial cavity from the thoracic cavity?

a. Transverse plane.

b. Median (midsagittal) plane.

c. Frontal (coronal) plane.

d. Sagittal plane.

29. Which of the following is NOT true of a sagittal plane

a. A sagittal section is a cut dividing the body into right and left parts.

b. A sagittal section divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.

c. A midsagittal plane divides the body into equal right and left parts.

d. A median plane is another name for a midsagittal plane.

e. Both the sagittal and coronal planes represent a cut made along a lengthwise plane.

30. The cartilage which covers the articular surfaces of long bones to decrease friction at joint surfaces is called:

a. Hyaline cartilage..

b. Elastic cartilage.

c. Synovial cartilage

d. Fibrocartilage callus.

.

31. A joint found at the ends of long bones that are movable, and contains a joint cavity would be:

a. A synovial joint.

b. An epithelial joint.

c. An articular joint.

d. Fibrous joints.

e. Cartilaginous joints.

32. The elbow joint is considered a type of

a. Pivot joint.

b. Hinge joint.

c. Saddle joint.

d. Plane joint.

33. An example of ball and socket joint is

a. Elbow joint.

b. Wrist joint

c. Shoulder joint.

d. Knee joint.

34. The joints between the bones of the skull are called::

a. Sutures.

b. Secondary cartilaginous

c. Primary cartilaginous

d. Synovial of plane variety.

35. Examples of fibrous joints are all of the followings except;

a. Sutures between bones of the skull.

b. Symphysis pubis.

c. Gomphosis which fixes the teeth in the jaws.

d. Interosseous membrane of forearm.

e. Interosseous membrane of the leg

36. The only type of temporary joints is;

a. Gomphosis

b. Secondary cartilaginous

c. Primary cartilaginous.

d. Plane synovial.

e. Syndesmosis.

37. The synovial joint has all of the following characters except:

a. Allow a considerable range of movement.

b. Covered by a capsule.

c. Have a cavity enclosed within its capsule.

d. Minimal synovial fluid within its cavity.

e. Their articular surfaces are covered by elastic cartilage.

38. The intervertebral disc articulates the bodies of the adjacent vertebrae. It is an example of'

a. Fibrous joint.

b. Plane synovial joint.

c. Hinge synovial joint.

d. Primary cartilaginous joint.

e. Secondary cartilaginous joint.

39. The most fixed type of joints which does allow any range of movement and there is no hope in it to do so is;

a. Syndesmosis.

b. Primary cartilaginous.

c. Secondary cartilaginous

d. Plane synovial.

e. Sutures.

40. The following type of synovial joints allows abduction, adduction, flexion and extension, medial rotation and lateral rotation and circumduction:

a. Pivot

b. Hinge

c. Ball and socket.

d. Hinge.

Answers

1-a 2-c 3-a 4-d 5-b 6-b 7-a 8-b 9-c 10-d

11-c    12-d    13-e       14-a 15-c 16-d 17-d

18-e 19-c 20-c 21-e 22-a 23-b 24-d 25-d

26-b 27-a 28-a 29-b 30-a

31-a 32-b 33-c 34-a 35-b 36-c    37-e 38-e 39-b 40-c