Describe how acetazolamide inhibits renal carbonic anhydrase to deplete bicarbonate, induce metabolic acidosis, and alkalize urine, aiding aspirin overdose, altitude sickness, and pseudotumor cerebri, with optic nerve fenestration for glaucoma.

The second heart sound splits as the aortic and pulmonary valves close at different times. Wide, fixed, and paradoxical splitting signal pulmonary stenosis, atrial septal defect, or aortic stenosis.

High altitude triggers acute hyperventilation leading to respiratory alkalosis and altitude sickness; chronic changes include bicarbonate excretion, urine alkalinization, acetazolamide effects, polycythemia, higher bpg, erythropoietin, and more mitochondria.

Explain the normal oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve, with a right shift driving oxygen release in active tissues and a left shift increasing oxygen affinity in the lungs.

Transport carbon dioxide mainly as bicarbonate via chloride exchange, and observe how Bohr and Haldane effects govern hydrogen binding and release during gas exchange.

Understand aortic dissection, including the tunica layers, true vs false lumen, and pseudo aneurysm; recognize Stanford and double classifications, signs like radial delay, imaging findings, and treatment options.

Explore hemophilia, a blood thinning disorder with hemarthrosis, petechiae, and epistaxis; cover types A, B, C—deficiencies of factors VIII, IX, XI—and treatments with clotting-factor replacement and desmopressin.

Understand hypertensive urgency and crisis, defined by blood pressure above 180/120, with crisis causing end organ damage; stop medications and use labetalol, clevidipine, fenoldopam, nicardipine, or nitroprusside to treat.

Polycythemia vera, caused by Jacques mutation, overproduces red blood cells, causing hyperviscosity, hypertension, aquagenic pruritus, erythromelalgia, and tachypnea, treated with hydroxyurea or phlebotomy.

Map the circle of Willis and how arterial occlusions create contralateral motor, sensory, aphasia, and visual deficits. Identify aneurysm sites, notably anterior communicating artery, and their subarachnoid hemorrhage risks.

Understand how superior vena cava compression causes venous congestion and edema in the upper body. Learn common causes like tumors and thrombosis, and that treatment targets the root cause.

Learn to lower cholesterol through diet, exercise, smoking cessation, weight loss, and limited alcohol; if needed, use statins and therapies like bile acid resins, PCSK inhibitors, fibrates, and niacin.

Explore iron deficiency anemia caused by GI bleeding, heavy menses, and malnutrition, with microcytic hypochromic RBCs; treat underlying causes and use iron supplements to restore iron and ferritin.

Utilize the pseudomonas mnemonic to recall pneumonia in cystic fibrosis, sepsis, erythema gangrenosum, UTIs, osteomyelitis, and otitis externa. Note exotoxin a, endotoxin, pyocyanin; blue-green pigmentation; antipseudomonal antibiotics.

Acetaminophen inhibits CNS cyclooxygenase, providing antipyretic and analgesic effects; has no peripheral action, used for fever in children to prevent Reye's, overdose yields NAPQI depleting glutathione, treat with N-acetylcysteine.

Learn how NSAIDs block COX-1 and COX-2. The strain mnemonic links prostaglandin loss to ulcers, notes the drug of choice to close PDA, and warns of renal injury risk.

Explore delta, kappa, and mu opioid receptors and how agonism or antagonism modulates pain signaling. Review major opioids, their uses, withdrawal risks, and key side effects.

Cardiology course explains calcium channel blockers, dihydropyridines dilate vessels to lower blood pressure, non-dihydropyridines such as verapamil reduce heart contraction, with nimodipine for subarachnoid hemorrhage and verapamil for atrial fibrillation and angina.

Explore cardiotoxic drugs such as trastuzumab, which reversibly impairs cardiomyocytes, and anthracyclines doxorubicin and epirubicin that irreversibly dilate with fibrosis; theophylline increases cyclic AMP, and tricyclic antidepressants block sodium channels.

Examine direct and indirect sympathomimetics that mimic fight-or-flight by stimulating beta-1 and beta-2 receptors and alpha-1 mediated vasoconstriction, with uses from dobutamine to epinephrine.

Explore how tumor grading reflects cellular differentiation and prognosis, while staging using T and M evaluates tumor size, nodular involvement, and metastasis, with clinical, pathological, and symptom indicators.